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THE NATURE OF MATERIALS Importance of Materials in Manufacturing
1. Atomic Structure and the Elements Manufacturing is a transformation process
2. Bonding between Atoms and Molecules It is the material that is transformed
And it is the behavior of the material when
3. Crystalline Structures
subjected to the forces, temperatures, and
4. Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures other parameters of the process that
5. Engineering Materials determines the success of the operation
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Atomic Structure and the Elements Element Groupings
The basic structural unit of matter is the atom The elements can be grouped into families and
Each atom is composed of a positively charged relationships established between and within
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of the families by means of the Periodic Table
negatively charged electrons so the charges Metals occupy the left and center portions of
are balanced the table
Nonmetals are on right
More than 100 elements, and they are the
chemical building blocks of all matter Between them is a transition zone containing
metalloids or semi-metals
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Periodic Table Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
Atoms are held together in molecules by various
types of bonds
1. Primary bonds - generally associated with
formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated
with attraction between molecules
Primary bonds are much stronger than
secondary bonds
Figure 2.1 Periodic Table of Elements. Atomic number and symbol
are listed for the 103 elements.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Primary Bonds Ionic Bonding
Characterized by strong atom-to-atom attractions Atoms of one element give up their outer
that involve exchange of valence electrons electron(s), which are in turn attracted to
atoms of some other element to increase
Following forms:
electron count in the outermost shell to eight
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic Figure 2.4 Three
forms of primary
bonding: (a) Ionic
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Covalent Bonding Metallic Bonding
Electrons are shared (as opposed to Sharing of outer shell electrons by all atoms
transferred) between atoms in their outermost to form a general electron cloud that
shells to achieve a stable set of eight permeates the entire block
Figure 2.4 Three forms
Figure 2.4 Three forms of
of primary bonding: (b)
primary bonding: (c) metallic
covalent
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Secondary Bonds Dipole Forces
Whereas primary bonds involve atom-to-atom Arise in a molecule comprised of two atoms
attractive forces, secondary bonds involve with equal and opposite electrical charges
attraction forces between molecules
Each molecule therefore forms a dipole that
No transfer or sharing of electrons in attracts other molecules
secondary bonding
Bonds are weaker than primary bonds
Three forms: Figure 2.6 Types of
1. Dipole forces secondary bonding:
(a) dipole forces
2. London forces
3. Hydrogen bonding
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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London Forces Hydrogen Bonding
Attractive force between nonpolar molecules, i.e., Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms
atoms in molecule do not form dipoles covalently bonded to another atom (e.g., H2O)
However, due to rapid motion of electrons in Since electrons to complete shell of hydrogen
orbit, temporary dipoles form when more atom are aligned on one side of nucleus,
electrons are on one side opposite side has a net positive charge that
attracts electrons in other molecules
Figure 2.6
Secondary bonding: Figure 2.6 Secondary
(b) London forces bonding: (c) hydrogen
bonding
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Macroscopic Structures of Matter Crystalline Structure
Atoms and molecules are the building blocks Structure in which atoms are located at regular
of more macroscopic structure of matter and recurring positions in three dimensions
When materials solidify from the molten state, Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of atoms
they tend to close ranks and pack tightly, that is repeated
arranging themselves into one of two The pattern may be replicated millions of times
structures: within a given crystal
Crystalline Characteristic structure of virtually all metals,
Noncrystalline as well as many ceramics and some polymers
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Three Crystal Structures in Metals Crystal Structures for Common Metals
1. Body-centered cubic Room temperature crystal structures for some of
2. Face centered cubic the common metals:
3. Hexagonal close-packed Body-centered cubic (BCC)
Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
Face-centered cubic (FCC)
Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver,
Nickel
Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
Figure 2.8 Three types of crystal structure in metals.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Imperfections (Defects) in Crystals Crystal defects
Imperfections often arise due to inability of Point Defects
solidifying material to continue replication of unit
cell, e.g., grain boundaries in metals
Imperfections can also be introduced purposely;
e.g., addition of alloying ingredient in metal
Types of defects:
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Surface defects
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving either
a single atom or a few number of atoms
Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion-pair vacancy, (c) interstitialcy,
(d) displaced ion (Frenkel Defect).
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Line Defects Line defect
Connected group of point defects that forms a line Edge Dislocations
in the lattice structure
Most important line defect is a dislocation,
which can take two forms:
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Screw Dislocations
Understanding the movement of a dislocation is key
to understanding why dislocations allow
deformation to occur at much lower stress than in a
perfect crystal
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation
Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in Spiral within the lattice structure wrapped around
the lattice an imperfection line, like a screw is wrapped
around its axis
Figure 2.10 Line Figure 2.10 Line
defects: (a) edge defects: (b) screw
dislocation dislocation
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Surface Defects
Imperfections that extend in two directions to
form a boundary
Examples:
External: the surface of a crystalline object
is an interruption in the lattice structure
Internal: grain boundaries are internal
surface interruptions
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Elastic Strain Plastic Strain
When a crystal experiences a gradually If stress is higher than forces holding atoms in
increasing stress, it first deforms elastically their lattice positions, a permanent shape
If force is removed lattice structure returns to change occurs
its original shape
Figure 2.11 Deformation of a crystal structure: (a) original lattice: (b) Figure 2.11 Deformation of a crystal structure: (c) plastic deformation
elastic deformation, with no permanent change in positions of atoms. (slip), in which atoms in the lattice are forced to move to new "homes“.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Effect of Dislocations on Strain Slip on a Macroscopic Scale
In the series of diagrams, the movement of the Slip occurs many times over throughout the
dislocation allows deformation to occur under a metal when subjected to a deforming load, thus
lower stress than in a perfect lattice causing it to exhibit its macroscopic behavior in
the stress-strain relationship
Dislocations are a good-news-bad-news
situation
Good news in manufacturing – the metal is
easier to form
Bad news in design – the metal is not as
strong as the designer would like
Figure 2.12 Effect of dislocations in the lattice structure under stress
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Twinning Void
A second mechanism of plastic deformation in
which atoms on one side of a plane (the twinning
plane) are shifted to form a mirror image of the
other side
Figure 2.13 Twinning, involving the formation of an atomic mirror image on the
opposite side of the twinning plane: (a) before, and (b) after twinning.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Elastic/Plastic Deformation Polycrystalline Nature of Metals
A block of metal may contain millions of
individual crystals, called grains
Such a structure is called polycrystalline
Each grain has its own unique lattice
orientation; but collectively, the grains are
randomly oriented in the block
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Grains and Grain Boundaries in Metals Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
How do polycrystalline structures form? Many materials are noncrystalline
As a block of metal cools from the molten Water and air have noncrystalline structures
state and begins to solidify, individual crystals
nucleate at random positions and orientations A metal loses its crystalline structure when
throughout the liquid melted
These crystals grow and finally interfere with Important engineering materials have
each other, forming at their interface a surface noncrystalline forms in their solid state
defect - a grain boundary Glass
Grain boundaries are transition zones,
Many plastics
perhaps only a few atoms thick
Rubber
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Features of Noncrystalline Structures Crystalline versus Noncrystalline
Two features differentiate noncrystalline
(amorphous) from crystalline materials:
1. Absence of long-range order in molecular
structure
2. Differences in melting and thermal
expansion characteristics
Figure 2.14 Difference in structure between: (a) crystalline and (b)
noncrystalline materials. The crystal structure is regular,
repeating, and denser; the noncrystalline structure is less tightly
packed and random.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Volumetric Effects Summary: Characteristics of Metals
Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost
without exception
BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
Atoms held together by metallic bonding
Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
FCC metals are generally ductile
Figure 2.15 Characteristic change in volume for a pure
metal (a crystalline structure), compared to the same
volumetric changes in glass (a noncrystalline structure).
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Summary: Characteristics of Ceramics Summary: Characteristics of Polymers
Most ceramics have crystalline structures, Many repeating mers in molecule held together
while glass (SiO2) is amorphous by covalent bonding
Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent Polymers usually carbon plus one or more
bonding, or both other elements: H, N, O, and Cl
Properties: high hardness and stiffness, Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of
electrically insulating, refractory, and amorphous and crystalline
chemically inert Properties: low density, high electrical
resistivity, and low thermal conductivity,
strength and stiffness vary widely
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e