SEMESTER – I

FINE TUNE YOUR ENGLISH

(Prepared by Shawn Oommen Anil)

Section A: The Sentence and Its Structure

Chapter 1
How to Write Effective Sentences
If a sentence serves the purpose for which it is meant, it is called an effective
sentence.
I. Qualities required for an Effective Sentence:
1. It is able to communicate the proper meaning in the right context.
2. It is context-friendly.
3. It should make a complete sense.
4. It should have correctness in meaning.
5. It should have unity, clarity and coherence.
6. It should give emphasis to a particular idea.
7. It should be logical, reliable, genuine and authentic.
8. There should be no ambiguity (confusion).
9. The sentence structure should be complete and well-aligned (balanced).
10. The words used in an effective sentence should be precise and should have firmness in
meaning.
11. There should be usage of standard spelling and language rules.
12. It should have a positive tone.
13. It should communicate a meaningful message that includes no distractive information.
14. It should be grammatically sound and easy to understand.
15. There should be no repetition of ideas or words (monotony).
16. It should avoid dangling (mixing up) of modifiers.
17. There should be judicious (done with good judgement) use of figurative language.
18. The beginning (introduction) and ending (conclusion) of a sentence should be appealing.
19. It should be specific rather than general.
20. It should not contain solecisms (mistakes/errors) and faulty parallelism.
II. Need for speaking/writing effective sentences in communication:
1. To describe something.
2. To impart (give) information on some matter.
3. To argue a point.
4. To expound (explain) a theory.
5. To amuse (entertain) a listener.

* A sentence will be weak and ineffective if it contains solecisms.

III. Sentence – Parts & Types:
A sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. In short,
a group of words together make a sentence. A sentence has got two parts:
a. Subject: It is typically a noun (person or object).
b. Predict (verb): It refers to the action or activity done by the subject or what happens to the
subject.
Examples:
1. The cat is sleeping under the sun.
Subject: cat Predicate: sleeping
2. The Roman Empire declined and fell.
Subject: Roman Empire Predicate: declined and fell
Types of sentences:
a. Simple sentence: It contains a single subject and a predicate. In short, it contains a single
independent clause.
Example:
1. The prisoner escaped.
2. Children are playing.
b. Complex sentence: It contains one independent clause and one dependent clause.
Example:
1. The prisoner planned carefully and escaped from his room.
2. Chitra’s children finished their studies and are playing hide and seek.
c. Compound sentence: It is made up of two or more simple sentences (independent clauses)
joined with a conjunction. It has no dependent clause.
Example:
1. Nancy was out of sugar so she went to the grocery store.
2. Sita was hungry and she ate pasta.
d. Periodic sentence: It is a sentence in which the main clause (independent clause) is give at
the end of the sentence in order to create interest or suspense.
Example:
1. Yesterday while I was walking down the street, I saw him.
2. Despite the blinding snow, the freezing temperatures, and the heightened threat of attack
from polar bears, the team continued.
 Chapter 2
Phrases
A phrase refers to a group of two or more words that express a single idea but do not
form a complete sentence. In short, a phrase makes sense, but not complete sense.
I. Qualities of Phrases:
1. It has no finite (complete) verbs.
2. There may be verbal elements like participles (a form of verb that is used to indicate a past
or ongoing action). Example: -ed, -en, -ing etc (words like smiling, taken, learned etc)
3. It does not form a complete sentence. There is no subject and predicate.
4. It functions like noun, adjective or adverb.
Examples of phrases:
1. The sun rises in the east.
(phrase)
2. There came a snake to my door.
(phrase)
3. Happy and cheerful, the boy started to sing a song.
(phrase)
II. Types of Phrases:
1. Noun Phrase: A group of words that does the work of a noun, but does not form a
complete sentence.
Example:
a. The boy wants to go home.
b. I found the owner of the dog.
2. Adjective Phrase: A group of words that does the work of an adjective, but does not form
a complete sentence.
Example:
a. Bill Gates is a man of great wealth.
b. Sita was a girl with blue eyes.
3. Adverb Phrase: A group of words that does the work of an adverb (it modifies a verb,
adjective, clause), but does not form a complete sentence.
Example:
a. The coin is made of pure gold.
b. Rama ran with great speed.
4. Prepositional phrase: It is a group of words made up of a preposition and its object. The
object can be a noun, pronoun or clause.
Example:
a. She caught the bus on time.
b. Ram cheered for his team with excitement.
5. Absolute phrase: It is a phrase with a subject and a partial predicate of its own.
Example:
a. God willing we shall meet again.
b. The visitors having left, we went to bed.
6. Verbless phrase: A phrase that contains no element of verb is called a verbless phrase.
Example:
a. Although always helpful, he was not liked much.
b. When young, blunt, the donkey was a champion.

Finite & Non-finite Verbs

Finite verb is a verb that shows agreement with a subject.
Example: is writing, are playing, am sleeping etc
Non-finite verbs do not show agreement with a subject.
Example: be positive, being creative, been sleeping etc
 Chapter – 3
Clauses
A clause is a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a subject
and predicate. It gives a complete thought.
Subject + Predicate (verb) = Complete Thought
Example:
1. I think that you have made a mistake.
2. When I came here, I saw him.
I. Types of Clauses:
1. Independent Clause/Main Clause: It is a clause that can form a complete sentence
standing alone, having a subject and a predicate.
2. Dependent Clause/Subordinate Clause: It is a clause that contain a subject and a
predicate but does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone and therefore cannot
be a complete sentence.
Example:
1. Jane ate pasta because she was hungry.
Independent clause – Jane ate pasta
Dependent clause – because she was hungry
2. Sam went to the park after he finished school.
Independent clause – Sam went to the park.
Dependent clause – after he finished school
3. Wherever he might go, I will follow him.
Independent clause – I will follow him
Dependent clause – Wherever he might go
4. The students should wait until the bell rings.
Independent clause – The students should wait
Dependent clause – until the bell rings

A dependent clause is further divided to three types:

a. Noun clause: It is a dependent clause that does the function of a noun in a sentence. It
contains a finite verb.
Example:
1. What Billy did, shocked his friends.
2. Everybody is sad that Rita drowned.
b. Adjective clause/Relative clause: It is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or
pronoun. It tells which one or what kind. Two kinds of relative clauses are:
1. Defining relative clause: It gives us information about the person or thing
mentioned. The removal of a defining relative clause will collapse the whole sentence
as it is an integral part of the sentence. It is also called a restrictive/essential relative
clause.
Example:
Children who hate chocolate are uncommon.
2. Non-defining relative clause: It gives us extra information about someone or
something. The removal of a non-defining relative clause does not affect the structure
of a sentence.
Example:
The Elephant, which is the largest of all land animals, is found in Asia and Africa.
(non-defining relative clause)
c. Adverb clause: It is a dependent clause that does the function of an adverb in a sentence. It
modifies the main verb in the independent clause. Types of adverb clauses are:
Adverb clause of Time
Eg: since, as soon as, before, after etc
Adverb clause of Place
Eg: wherever, everywhere, anywhere etc
Adverb clause of Reason
Eg: because, so, for, since etc
Adverb clause of Condition
Eg: if, when, unless, until, even though, even if etc
Adverb clause of Contrast
Eg: though, although, despite, inspite etc
Adverb clause of Degree
Eg: as, than, so….as, as….as etc
Adverb clause of Manner
Eg: as if, like etc
Adverb clause of Concession
Eg: while, whereas, even if, though, although, even though etc
Adverb clause of Purpose
Eg: that, so that, in order that, lest etc
Example:
1. Even if I take the train, I still might be late for my appointment.
2. He failed the test though he had prepared well.
3. John is not coming today as he is ill.
4. If they really like you, they’ll come here to see you.
5. That is the café where we held the meeting.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE
Conditional clauses are used to speculate (think/reflect) about what could happen,
what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. Sentences with conditional
clauses contain the word ‘if or unless’. Conditional sentences express factual implications (if
one fact is right, the other is also right) or hypothetical (theory) situations and their
consequences.
Types of conditional clauses:
a. Zero conditional: It expresses general truths. The condition always has the same result.
(If + Present Simple + Present Simple)
Example:
1. If you stand in the rain, you get wet.
2. If you heat ice, it melts.
b. First conditional (Type – I): It expresses a possible situation in the future. It predicts a
likely result in the future if the condition happens.
(If + Present Simple + Will/Won’t + Verb)
Example:
1. If it rains, we will cancel the trip.
2. If you study, you will pass the exam.
c. Second conditional (Type – II): It expresses a hypothetical or unlikely situation. It can be
unreal or improbable situation now or in the future.
(If + Past Simple + Would + Verb)
Example:
1. If I won the lottery, I would travel a lot.
2. If they sold their house, they would be rich.
d. Third conditional (Type – III): It expresses an imaginary situation that did not happen.
The person here is imagining a different past.
(If + Past Perfect + Would Have + Past Participle)
Example:
1. If you had studied, you would have passed the exam.
2. If I hadn’t been sick, I would have gone to your party.
 Chapter – 4
Conjunctions
A conjunction is defined as a word or word class that connects words or
constructions. The three types of conjunctions are:
a. Co-ordinating conjunctions: They are used to connect sentences of equal rank. They are
and, but, for, only, either….or, neither….nor and or, still, yet, so, however, therefore,
whereas, nevertheless etc.
Example:
1. George came here but did not stay for lunch.
2. I have a dog and a cat.
b. Subordinate conjunctions: They are used to connect one main idea to a dependent idea.
They are after, before, when, where, why, how, till, until, unless, although, though, even
though, if, that, because, since, as, than etc.
Example:
1. Sita usually eats at home because she likes cooking.
2. We decided to play on even though it was raining heavily.
c. Correlative conjunctions: They are used to illustrate how two words or phrases within a
sentence related to each other. Correlative conjunctions often come in pairs. They are rather
than, not only, but also, either or, neither nor, whether or, both and etc.
Example:
1. The farm has both beef and dairy cattle.
2. He would rather play than work.

RELATIVE PRONOUN
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause. The relative pronouns
are that, which, who, whom and whose. A relative pronoun introduces a dependent (or
relative) clause and connects it to an independent clause.
Example:
1. The woman who came to the door left flowers for you.
2. I am not sure whom this book belongs to.
3. Is this what you were talking about?
4. She finally visited the coffee shop that had such great reviews.

* Who, whom, whose, which etc are examples of possessive relative pronouns.
*Compound relative pronouns apply universally to a number of people or things. They
include whoever, whomever, whichever and whatever.
Example:
1. Please tell whoever may call that I am not available.
2. Whomever you hire will be fine with me.
3. Sita will be successful at whatever she chooses to do in life.
Answer Key for Textbook Exercises:
Chapter One:
Exercise 1
Enlarge the subject and extend the verb. There should be at least fifteen words in each
new sentence.
a. The smart young beautiful girls in our college danced well in the competition conducted in
New Delhi.
b. The smart young little girl who had won several prizes in her school’s cultural
competitions is here.
c. My dearest friend Raju and his only brother worked hard but unfortunately they failed in
the exam.
d. The sun which rose in the east shone brightly over the towns and villages nearby.
e. When the rain stops falling, there is always a cool breeze of wind that is blowing
throughout the village.
Exercise 2
Rewrite as directed.
a. After making all arrangements for next day’s Board meeting and clearing all the pending
files, John the managing director left the office.
b. Climbing a wall near him, he cried for help.
c. He is industrious, diligent and hardworking.
d. In the forest camp I heard the hooting of owls, trumpet of the elephant, braying of the wild
asses and baying of wolves.
e. He saw the thief escape by jumping into a truck.
Chapter Two:
Exercise – Rewrite as directed.
a. Walking back to the home, she prayed fervently to her favourite God.
b. Shocked by the loss in business, he forgot himself and shouted at the manager.
c. The sun setting in the west, the birds returned to their nests.
d. While at rest, the man sat in the shade of a tree, fell asleep.
e. Being ill, she did not attend the lecture.
f. Inspite of being ill, he refused to take rest.
g. Although being young, he was a good looking chap.
Chapter Three:
Exercise 1
Identify the noun clauses in the following sentences.
a. Nobody knows what he has in his mind, which is a very dark place.
b. When his thought comes to my mind, I think of what he told me once.
c. I discovered that the boy who came here was John’s brother.
d. He finds the idea that the earth is round very hard to believe for he thinks that the earth
cannot be round.
e. Nobody knows where he is now but this is the house where he used to live in.
Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences, each with a noun clause.
a. what he says
b. What he thought
c. showing that he was brave.
d. what he eats daily.
e. what he thinks?
Chapter Four:
Exercise 1
Identify and underline the adverb clauses in the following sentences.
a. The camel, which is called the ship of the desert, walks on two very broad toes so that it
does not sink into the powdery sand.
b. When we met, he asked me to see the problem as other people saw it.
c. Happiness, which we all love to possess, will not come to us unless we make others happy.
d. You are an outsider and so I advise you to stay away because people do not like
intervention by outsiders.
e. I do not know where he lives but his brother lives where this road divides.
Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences, each with an adverb clause.
a. Where there is a will
b. If you studied well
c. After finishing her work
d. so she took rest
Chapter Five:
Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences, each with a conditional clause.
a. If you help the poor, people would like you.
b. If you study well, you will get higher marks.
c. If I was a little more careful, the incident would not have happened.
d. Unless you pay the compensation, he will not withdraw the case against you.
e. If you work out, you will grow stronger muscles.
Exercise 2
a. He will not withdraw the case unless you pay the compensation.
b. If you behaved yourself, others would respect you.
c. Unless you water the plants, they will dry up.
d. The chairman will agree to talk to them on condition that the strike is called off at once.
e. Infinitival phrase: An infinitival phrase is the infinitive form of a verb plus any
complements and modifiers. The complement of an infinitive verb will often be its direct
object, and the modifier will often be an adverb.
Example:
He likes to knead the dough slowly.
(An infinitive phrase begins with the infinitive verb, usually with the word “to” in
front.)

*Pre-conditional structure is “If Clause” which is to be infinitive.

Example:
If he is to start a road trip, he should have his car insured.
Chapter Six:
Exercise – Rewrite as directed
a. Non-defining relative clause: which is the land’s end of India
Defining relative clause: is an important tourist destination where people come from all
over the world so that they may see what the place has to offer.
Sentence after removing the non-defining relative clause:
Cape Comorin is an important tourist destination where people come from all over the world
so that they may see what the place has to offer.
b. This is the place where I live.
c. Dr. Manmohan Singh, our former Prime Minister, is a noted economist.
d. Gita spends her time helping the people who are poor and associating herself with the
causes that are noble.
e. A man who looked like a thief was seen prowling around in the night.
f. The man with a red cap, who is a volunteer, will help you.
(defining relative clause) (non-defining relative clause)

g. The Boy, who is a famous painter, had bought a German Shepherd which is an expensive
dog.

Chapter Seven:
Exercise 1 & 2 – Analyse the following sentences and examine how the clauses are
conjoined and say what part of speech (conjunction, relative pronoun etc) they are.
a. When, where – Adverb clause of time
that – Adverb clause of reason
that – Relative pronoun
where – Relative adverb
when, till – Subordinate conjunction
b. Though, because, after – Subordinate conjunction
that – Adverb clause of reason
that – Relative pronoun
and – Coordinating conjunction
c. When – Adverb clause of time
that, when, which – Relative pronoun
d. wherever – Coordinating conjunction
although – Subordinate conjunction
e. Though – Subordinate conjunction
so – Coordinating/subordinating conjunction
which – Relative pronoun