Module-3

Subject: Power Quality

Content: Over Voltages

Prepared by

Dr. Subhranshu Sekhar Dash, Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Government College of Engineering, keonjhar, Odisha, India
.

1. What is the phenomena of Overvoltage

An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110% at the power frequency for
a duration longer than 1 minute.

Overvoltages are usually the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load), or
energizing a capacitor bank). The overvoltages result because the system is either too weak for
the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on
transformers can also result in system overvoltages.

2. Name the various sources of over voltages?

The various sources of overvoltages are ,

• capacitor switching
• Lightning
• Ferro resonance.

3. What is capacitance switching?

When a long unloaded line or a capacitor bank is switched off the capacitive current
produces high voltage transients across the breaker contacts. This interrupting or chopping of
capacitive current is called capacitive current chopping / braking.

4. What is lightning phenomena?

Lightning is a huge spark, which is due to the electrical discharges taking place between the
separate charge centers in the same cloud or between cloud and earth.
Or
Lighting phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds
discharges in to a neighboring cloud or to the ground

5. Define Ferro resonance? Give some practical instances under which Ferro
resonance may occur?

The phenomenon of Ferroresonancerefers to a special kind of resonance that involves

capacitance and iron core inductance .The most common condition in which it causes
distrubances is when the magnetising impedances of a transformer is places in series
with a system capacitor.

6. Give the Conditions/ practical instances for Ferroresonance.

Ferroresonance occurs when an unloaded 3-phase system consisting of an inductive and a

capacitive component is interrupted by single phase means. In practice this is typical of a high
voltage electrical distribution network of transformers (inductive component) and power cables
(capacitive component). If such a network has no load and the applied voltage is then interrupted
on a single phase, a ferroresonance may be observed. If the remaining phases are not interrupted
and the phenomenon continues, overvoltage can lead to the breakdown of insulation in connected
components resulting in failure
7. What is the difference between a ferro resonant circuit and a linear resonant circuit

The main differences between a ferro resonant circuit and a linear resonant circuit are for a
given ω

• its resonance possibility in a wide range of values of C.

• the frequency of the voltage and current waves which may be different from that of the
sinusoidal voltage source,
• the existence of several stable steady state responses for a given configuration and values

[Link] the common indication of ferroresonance

Following are the common indications of ferroresonance

• Audible noise
• Overheating
• High voltages and surge arrester failures
• Flicker

9. Mention the various system conditions that help increase the probability of
ferroresonance

• Switching of lightly loaded and un loaded transformer

• Ungrounded transformer primary connection
• Very lengthy underground cable circuit.
• Three phase systems with single phase switching devices.
• Cable damage and manual switching during construction of under ground cables.

10. Mention the most common events leading to ferroresonance

• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed three phase transformer where only one
phase is closed.

• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed three phase transformer where only one
phases is open
• One or two riser - pole fuse may blow leaving a transformer with one or two phases
open

11. How to prevent ferrroresonance?

• Use grounded-wye/grounded-wye systems.

• Keep primary cable runs short.
• Place switch/ protection directly upstream of the transformer.
• Have some load on the transformer when switching.
• Surge arrestors may be used to help suppress overvoltages.
• Use three-phase switchgear instead of fuses. This is not economical in many cases.
• Open or close all three cutouts as simultaneously as possible.
• Eliminate fuses. Relay on feeder breaker for fault interruption.
• Various measures to prevent inadvertent fuse operation.
12. Name the various methods of mitigating voltage swell?

• DVR (Dynamic voltage restorer),

• Power Conditioners,
• Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT).

13. Name the various devices for over voltage protection?

• Surge arrester
• Transient voltage surge suppressor(TVSS)
• Isolation transformer
• Low pass filters
• Low impedance power conditioner
• Utility surge arrester.

14. What is a utility surge arrester?

Surge arrester is a protective device for limiting surge voltages by discharging or

bypassing surge current, and it also prevents continued flow of follow current while
remaining capable of repeating these functions

[Link] does a surge arrester do?

A surge arrester, or surge diverter, acts like a trapdoor to excess electrical energy.
Sometimes called over-voltages, or transients, or surges, unwanted bursts of electricity are
lured(attracted) to the trapdoor by what is called a low-impedance path to ground. The trapdoor
is a metal oxide varistor, or MOV, which opens or "clamps" when the overvoltage exceeds a
certain level, and safely diverts most of the excess energy to the ground rod.

When the over-voltage or transient is over, the MOV automatically resets and is ready for
the next one. It is important to note that with lightning or other fast acting impulses, the leading
edge of the impulse will pass the first MOV, even as the majority of the surge is racing to, and
through, the trapdoor, hence the need for a second stage "point of use" plug-in type surge arrester
inside the home or business.

16. What is a low pass filter?

A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the
amplitude of signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. Low pass filters are
composed of series inductors and parallel capacitors this L-.C combination provides a
low impedance path to ground for selected resonant frequencies.

[Link] is a low impedance power conditioner?

These line conditioners provide the best all-round power conditioning and surge protection for
sensitive electronic equipment. The integral low-impedance isolation transformer provides 100%
isolation from the input ac line. The secondary neutral-to-ground bond eliminates all surge
voltages between neutral and ground. Surge protection and noise filtering are superior to
conventional surge protection and filtering devices.

[Link] the different methods Utility System Lightning protection?

• Shielding
• Line arrester
[Link] is shielding?

Shielding is nothing but installing a ground conductor above the phase conductor.

• Common in transmission and substations.

• Not common in distribution.
• Goal is to prevent lightning from striking the phase conductor.
• Ground lead must be kept well away from phase conductors and be as straight as possible.
• Ground resistance needs to be as low as possible.

20. What is a line arrester?

These are mainly used for overhead line protection. Made up of MOV blocks
encapsulated in a polymer housing. The arresters bleed off some of the stroke current
as it passes along the line. And can be located at every second or third pole.

[Link] is PSCAD ? What are it's application?

PSCAD is a general-purpose time domain simulation tool for studying transient behavior of
electrical networks. The program includes a comprehensive library of models including all
aspects of AC and DC power systems and controls. To augment( to increase) the component
library, the program provides the ability to create user models and libraries with the built-in
graphical component workshop. Design tool for a variety of industry applications.

[Link] is EMTP? What are it’s application?

The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) is a computer program for simulating

electromagnetic, electromechanical, and control system transients on multi-phase electric power
systems. Studies involving use of the EMTP fall in two general categories.

Applications

• One is design, which includes insulation coordination, equipment ratings, protective device
specification, control systems design, etc.
• Other is solving operational problems such as unexplained outages or equipment failures.

23. What is an isolation transformer?

An isolation transformer is a transformer, often with symmetrical windings, which is used

to decouple two circuits. An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to be taken from
one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits. Isolation
transformers block transmission of DC signals from one circuit to the other, but allow AC signals
to pass. They also block interference caused by ground loops. Isolation transformers with
electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for sensitive equipment such as computers or
laboratory instruments

24. What is the difference between a Surge arrester and TVSS?

A TVSS is an abbreviation for "transient voltage surge suppressor." A TVSS is a device

that attenuates (reduces in magnitude) random, high energy, short duration electrical power
anomalies (disturbances)caused by utilities, atmospheric phenomena, or inductive loads.
 A surge diverter is a device that is connected between line and earth, ie., in parallel with the
equipment under protection at the substation. It limits the duration and amplitude of the follow
current by transferring the high voltage surges on power system to ground.

25. What is a TVSS?

Transient voltage surge suppressors is a protective device for limiting transient voltages by
diverting or limiting surge current, it also prevents continued flow of follow current while
remaining capable of repeating these functions.

26. Give the circuit diagram of a hybrid transient protector.

Fig 3.2 Hybrid transient protector.

27. Differentiate between crow bar devices and clamping devices

Crowbar devices: Normally open devices, that conduct current during over voltage
transients. These devices are usually manufactured with a gap filled with air or a
special gas. The gap arcs over when a sufficiently high overvoltage transient appears.
In case of Crowbar devices the power frequency drops to zero or to a very low value.

Clamping devices: For ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors)

that conducts very low amounts of current until an over voltage occurs. Then they starts
to conduct heavily, and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing voltage. In case of
clamping devices the voltage is not reduced below the conduction level. When they
begin to conducts. Ex. MOV (Metal oxide varistors)

28. What are the clamping devices for ac circuits?

Clamping devices for ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors (varistors) that
conducts very low amounts of current until an over voltage occurs. Then they starts to
conduct heavily, and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing voltage Ex: MOV (
Metal oxide varistors i.e the chief ingredient is zinc oxide )

A metal oxide varistor (MOV) is a device commonly used in surge protectors. There are
two characteristics MOV’s that make them desirable for surge protection. First, the resistance of
an MOV decreases with an increase in voltage. In addition, MOV’s are fast acting and can
respond to a surge in just a few nanoseconds. This results in suppressing a surge before it has a
chance to damage electronic equipment.

29. What is clamping voltage?

A Clamping voltage-also referred to as peak let through or suppressed voltage rating-is the
amount of voltage a surge suppressor permits to pass through it to the attached load during a
transient event. Clamping voltage is a performance measurement of a surge suppressor's ability
 to attenuate a transient. This performance value is confirmed by Underwriters Laboratories
during tests conducted while evaluating a surge suppressor for listing.

30. Where are surge suppressors installed?

An AC surge suppressors are typically installed in these three areas:

• At a utility service entrance for protection of an entire facility.

• In distribution panel boards and switchboards for protection of sensitive downstream loads.
• Connected to a wall outlet for individual protection of a specific piece of equipment, such as a
computer or solid-state controller.

31. Why the gapless MOV (Zno) arrester is preferred over gapped MOV &
Gapped Silicon carbide arrester?

The gapless MOV provides a somewhat better discharge characteristics without high
spark over transient and useful where there is a need for increased protective margin.

Disuses the various sources of Transient over voltages on utility systems.

There are two main sources of transient over voltages on utility systems.
i. Capacitor switching ( de-energization of transmission lines cables capacitor banks).
ii. Lightning.
iii. Ferroresonance.

The making and breaking of circuits due to frequent switching operation in a

power system may give rise to over voltage transient in the system owing to large
inductances and capacitances the major of which is Ferroresonance.

i. Capacitor switching ( de-energization of transmission lines cables capacitor banks)

one of the more common causes of electrical transients is switching of capacitor banks in
power systems. Electrical utilities switch capacitor banks during peak load hours to offset the
lagging kVAR demand of the load. The leading kVARs drawn by the capacitor banks offset the
lagging kVAR demand of the load, reducing the net kVA load on the circuit.

Capacitor switching is one of the most common switching events on utility systems
.During capacitance switching operations that result in excessive overvoltages, the stored energy
in the electric field of capacitance is released in the system. Dropping of A long open-circuited
line or an underground cable or disconnection of capacitor banks may present hazardous
overvoltages. Fig 3.3 shows the single diagram of a typical utility feeder capacitor
switching situation . Fig 3.4 shows the equivalent circuit for capacitance switching where L
is the inductance up to the circuit breaker point and c is the Capacitance of the
capacitor bank which is being isolated by the breaker the system voltage, current in
fig.3.5b). Till instant ‘A’ (the current zero) The potential across the breaker contact is zero.
After this, the potential across the contacts starts increasing to attain 2Vm.(or1.3 to 1.4 per unit).
 Fig 3.3 one line diagram of a capacitor switching operation.

Fig 3.4 Equivalent circuit for capacitance switching

Magnification of capacitor- switching transient:

fig 3.5(a) voltage magnification at customer capacitor due to energizing capacitor on utility system

The problem of adding power factor correction capacitors at the customer location
is that they may increase the impact of utility capacitor switching transients on end
user equipments.

Fig 3.5(b) Voltage Magnification of capacitor bank switching

ii) Lightning

Lightning is a potent source of impulsive transient the common places where

lightning may strike is primary phase, secondary phase , and point where secondary is
grounded, of a transformer and on grounded structure.

iii) Ferroresonance

The phenomenon of Ferroresonance refers to a special kind of resonance that involves

capacitance and iron core inductance. The most common condition in which it causes
distrubances is when the magnetising impedances of a transformer is places in series
with a system capacitor.

Conditions (or) practical instances for Ferroresonance:

Ferroresonance occurs when an unloaded 3-phase system consisting of an inductive and a

capacitive component is interrupted by single phase means. In practice this is typical of a high
voltage electrical distribution network of transformers (inductive component) and power cables
(capacitive component). If such a network has no load and the applied voltage is then interrupted
on a single phase, a ferroresonance may be observed. If the remaining phases are not interrupted
and the phenomenon continues, overvoltage can lead to the breakdown of insulation in connected
components resulting in failure. The phenomenon of Ferroresonance is the occurrence of an
unstable high voltage, typically on 3 phase electrical systems which only occurs under specific
conditions. The nature of the overvoltage can cause the failure of equipment.

Conditions for Ferroresonance occurs when an unloaded 3-phase system consisting of an

inductive and a capacitive component is interrupted by single phase means.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.14 Common system conditions where ferroresonance may occur: (a) one phase closed, (b) one phase open.

In practice this is typical of a high voltage electrical distribution network of transformers

(inductive component) and power cables (capacitive component). If such a network has no load
and the applied voltage is then interrupted on a single phase, a ferroresonance may be observed.
If the remaining phases are not interrupted and the phenomenon continues, overvoltage can lead
to the breakdown of insulation in connected components resulting in failure.
How to prevent ferroresonance? (Or) Strategies for dealing with ferroresonance.

• Use three-phase switchgear instead of fuses. This is not economical in many cases.
• Open or close all three cutouts as simultaneously as possible.
• Eliminate fuses. Relay on feeder breaker for fault interruption.
• Various measures to prevent inadvertent fuse operation.

2. Explain the ferroresonance phenomena in detail with neat circuit diagram.

The term ferroresonance refers to a special kind of resonance that involves capacitance and
iron-core inductance. The most common condition in which it causes disturbances is when the
magnetizing impedance of a transformer is placed in series with a system capacitor. This
happens when there is an open-phase conductor. Under controlled conditions, ferroresonance can
be exploited for useful purpose such as in a constant-voltage transformer.

Ferroresonance is different than resonance in linear system elements. In linear systems,

resonance results in high sinusoidal voltages and currents of the resonant frequency. Linear-
system resonance is the phenomenon behind the magnification of harmonics in power systems.

Ferroresonance can also result in high voltages and currents, but the resulting waveforms
are usually irregular and chaotic in shape. The concept of ferroresonance can be explained in
terms of linear-system resonance as follows. Consider a simple series RLC circuit as shown in
Fig. 4.9. Neglecting the resistance R for the moment, the current flowing in the circuit can be
expressed as follows:

Where, E = driving voltage

XL =reactance of L
XC =reactance of C
When XL = |XC|, a series-resonant circuit is formed, and the equation yields an infinitely large
current that in reality would be limited by R. An alternate solution to the series RLC circuit can
be obtained by writing two equations defining the voltage across the inductor, i.e.,

Figure 4.9 Simple series RLC circuit.

Where, v is a voltage variable. Figure 4.10 shows the graphical solution of these two equations
for two different reactances, XL and XL′. XL′ represents the series-resonant condition. The
intersection point between the capacitive and inductive lines gives the voltage across inductor
EL. The voltage across capacitor EC is determined as shown in Fig. 4.10. At resonance, the two
lines will intersect at infinitely large voltage and current since the |XC| line is parallel to the XL′
line. Now, let us assume that the inductive element in the circuit has a nonlinear reactance
characteristic like that found in transformer magnetizing reactance. Figure 4.11 illustrates the
graphical solution of the equations following the methodology just presented for linear circuits.
 While the analogy cannot be made perfectly, the diagram is useful to help understand
ferroresonance phenomena. It is obvious that there may be as many as three intersections
between the capacitive reactance line and the inductive reactance curve. Intersection 2 is an
unstable solution, and this operating point gives rise to some of the chaotic behavior of
ferroresonance. Intersections 1 and 3 are stable and will exist in the steady state. Intersection 3
results in high voltages and high currents. Figures 4.12 and 4.13 show examples of ferroresonant
voltages that can result from this simple series circuit. The same inductive characteristic was
assumed for each case. The capacitance was varied to achieve a different operating point after an
initial transient that pushes the system into resonance. The unstable case yields voltages in
excess of 4.0 pu, while the stable case settles in at voltages slightly over 2.0 pu. Either condition
can impose excessive duty on power system elements and load equipment. For a small
capacitance, the |XC| line is very steep, resulting in an intersection point on the third quadrant
only. This can yield a range of voltages from less than 1.0 pu to voltages like those shown in Fig.
4.13.

Figure 4.10 Graphical solution to the linear LC circuit.

Figure 4.11 Graphical solution to the nonlinear LC circuit.

 Figure 4.12 Example of unstable, chaotic ferroresonance voltages.

Figure 4.13 Example of ferroresonance voltages settling into a stable operating point (intersection 3) after an initial
transient.

When C is very large, the capacitive reactance line will intersect only at points 1 and 3. One
operating state is of low voltage and lagging current (intersection 1), and the other is of high
voltage and leading current (intersection 3). The operating points during ferroresonance can
oscillate between intersection points 1 and 3 depending on the applied voltage. Often, the
resistance in the circuit prevents operation at point 3 and no high voltages will occur. In practice,
ferroresonance most commonly occurs when unloaded transformers become isolated on
underground cables of a certain range of lengths. The capacitance of overhead distribution lines
is generally insufficient to yield the appropriate conditions. The minimum length of cable
required to cause ferroresonance varies with the system voltage level. The capacitance of cables
is nearly the same for all distribution voltage levels, varying from 40 to 100 nF per 1000 feet (ft),
depending on conductor size. However, the magnetizing reactance of a 35-kV-class distribution
transformer is several times higher (the curve is steeper) than a comparably sized 15-kV-class
transformer. Therefore, damaging ferroresonance has been more common at the higher voltages.
For delta-connected transformers, ferroresonance can occur for less than 100 ft of cable. For this
reason, many utilities avoid this connection on cable-fed transformers.

The grounded wye-wye transformer has become the most commonly used connection in
underground systems in North American. It is more resistant, but not immune, to ferroresonance
because most units use a three-legged or five-legged core design that couples the phases
magnetically. It may require a minimum of several hundred feet of cable to provide enough
capacitance to create a ferroresonant condition for this connection. The most common events
leading to ferroresonance are,
• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed, three-phase transformer where only one phase is
closed (Fig. 4.14a). Ferroresonance may be noted when the first phase is closed upon
energization or before the last phase is opened on deenergization.
• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed, three-phase transformer where one of the phases
is open (Fig. 4.14b). Again, this may happen during energization or deenergization.
• One or two riser-pole fuses may blow leaving a transformer with one or two phases open.
Single-phase reclosers may also cause this condition. Today, many modern commercial loads
have controls that transfer the load to backup systems when they sense this condition.

Unfortunately, this leaves the transformer without any load to damp out the resonance. It
should be noted that these events do not always yield noticeable ferroresonance. Some utility
personnel claim to have worked with underground cable systems for decades without seeing
ferroresonance. System conditions that help increase the likelihood of ferroresonance include

• Higher distribution voltage levels, most notably 25- and 35-kV-class systems.
• Switching of lightly loaded and unloaded transformers.
• Ungrounded transformer primary connections.

The most common events leading to ferroresonance

• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed three phase transformer where only one
phase is closed.
• Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed three phase transformer where only one
phases is open
• One or two riser - pole fuse may blow leaving a transformer with one or two phases
open

1. Explain the principle of over voltage protection of a load equipment.

The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load equipment are,

• Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation.

• Divert the surge current away from the load.
• Block the surge current from entering the load.
• Bond grounds together at the equipment.
• Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between grounds.
• Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.

Figure 4.16 illustrates these principles, which are applied to protect from a lightning strike.
The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) is to limit
the voltage that can appear between two points in the circuit. This is an important concept to
understand. One of the common misconceptions about varistors, and similar devices, is that they
somehow are able to absorb the surge or divert it to ground independently of the rest of the
system. That may be a beneficial side effect of the arrester application if there is a suitable path
for the surge current to flow into, but the foremost concern in arrester application is to place the
arresters directly across the sensitive insulation that is to be protected so that the voltage seen by
the insulation is limited to a safe value. Surge currents, just like power currents, must obey
Kirchoff’s laws. They must flow in a complete circuit, and they cause a voltage drop in every
conductor through which they flow. One of the points to which arresters, or surge suppressors,
are connected is frequently the local ground, but this need not be the case.
 Figure 4.16 Demonstrating the principles of overvoltage protection.

Keep in mind that the local ground may not remain at zero potential during transient impulse
events. Surge suppression devices should be located as closely as possible to the critical
insulation with a minimum of lead length on all terminals. While it is common to find arresters
located at the main panels and subpanels, arresters applied at the point where the power line
enters the load equipment are generally the most effective in protecting that particular load. In
some cases, the best location is actually inside the load device. For example, many electronic
controls made for service in the power system environment have protectors [metal-oxide varistor
(MOV) arresters, gaps, zener diodes, or surge capacitors] on every line that leaves the cabinet.

In Fig. 4.16 the first arrester is connected from the line to the neutral- ground bond at the
service entrance. It limits the line voltage V1 from rising too high relative to the neutral and
ground voltage at the panel. When it performs its voltage-limiting action, it provides a low
impedance path for the surge current to travel onto the ground lead. Note that the ground lead
and the ground connection itself have significant impedance. Therefore, the potential of the
whole power system is raised with respect to that of the remote ground by the voltage drop
across the ground impedance. For common values of surge currents and ground impedances, this
can be several kilovolts.

One hopes, in this situation, that most of the surge energy will be discharged through the
first arrester directly into ground. In that sense, the arrester becomes a surge “diverter.” This is
another important function related to surge arrester application. In fact, some prefer to call a
surge arrester a surge diverter because its voltage-limiting action offers a low-impedance path
around the load being protected. However, it can only be a diverter if there is a suitable path into
which the current can be diverted. That is not always easy to achieve, and the surge current is
sometimes diverted toward another critical load where it is not wanted. In this figure, there is
another possible path for the surge current the signal cable indicated by the dotted line and
bonded to the safety ground. If this is connected to another device that is referenced to ground
elsewhere, there will be some amount of surge current flowing down the safety ground
conductor.

Damaging voltages can be impressed across the load as a result. The first arrester at the
service entrance is electrically too remote to provide adequate load protection. Therefore, a
second arrester is applied at the load—again, directly across the insulation to be protected. It is
connected “line to neutral” so that it only protects against normal mode transients. This
illustrates the principles without complicating the diagram but should be considered as the
minimum protection one would apply to protect the load. Frequently, surge suppressors will have
suppression on all lines to ground, all lines to neutral, and neutral to ground. While lightning
surge currents are seeking a remote ground reference, many transient overvoltages generated by
switching will be those of a normal mode and will not seek ground. In cases where surge currents
are diverted into other load circuits, arresters must be applied at each load along the path to
ensure protection.
 Note that the signal cable is bonded to the local ground reference at the load just before the
cable enters the cabinet. It might seem that this creates an unwanted ground loop. However, it is
essential to achieving protection of the load and the low-voltage signal circuits. Otherwise, the
power components can rise in potential with respect to the signal circuit reference by several
kilovolts. Many loads have multiple power and signal cables connected to them. Also, a load
may be in an environment where it is close to another load and operators or sensitive equipment
are routinely in contact with both loads. This raises the possibility that a lightning strike may
raise the potential of one ground much higher than the others. This can cause a flashover across
the insulation that is between the two ground references or cause physical harm to operators.
Thus, all ground reference conductors (safety grounds, cable shields, cabinets, etc.) should be
bonded together at the load equipment.

The principle is not to prevent the local ground reference from rising in potential with the
surge; with lightning, that is impossible. Rather, the principle is to tie the references together so
that all power and signal cable references in the vicinity rise together. This phenomenon is a
common reason for failure of electronic devices. The situation occurs in TV receivers connected
to cables, computers connected to modems, computers with widespread peripherals powered
from various sources, and in manufacturing facilities with networked machines.

Since a few feet of conductor make a significant difference at lightning surge frequencies,
it is sometimes necessary to create a special low-inductance, ground reference plane for sensitive
electronic equipment such as mainframe computers that occupy large spaces.4 Efforts to block
the surge current are most effective for high-frequency surge currents such as those originating
with lightning strokes and capacitor-switching events. Since power frequency currents must pass
through the surge suppressor with minimal additional impedance, it is difficult and expensive to
build filters that are capable of discriminating between low-frequency surges and power
frequency currents.

Blocking can be done relatively easily for high-frequency transients by placing an inductor,
or choke, in series with the load. The high surge voltage will drop across the inductor. One must
carefully consider that high voltage could damage the insulation of both the inductor and the
loads. However, a line choke alone is frequently an effective means to block such high-frequency
transients as line-notching transients from adjustable-speed drives.

The blocking function is frequently combined with the voltage-limiting function to form a
low-pass filter in which there is a shunt-connected voltage-limiting device on either side of the
series choke. Figure 4.16 illustrates how such a circuit naturally occurs when there are arresters
on both ends of the line feeding the load. The line provides the blocking function in proportion to
its length. Such a circuit has very beneficial overvoltage protection characteristics. The
inductance forces the bulk of fast-rising surges into the first arrester. The second arrester then
simply has to accommodate what little surge energy gets through. Such circuits are commonly
built into outlet strips for computer protection.

Many surge-protection problems occur because the surge current travels between two, or
more, separate connections to ground. This is a particular problem with lightning protection
because lightning currents are seeking ground and basically divide according to the ratios of the
impedances of the ground paths. The surge current does not even have to enter the power, or
phase, conductors to cause problems. There will be a significant voltage drop along the ground
conductors that will frequently appear across critical insulation.

The grounds involved may be entirely within the load facility, or some of the grounds may
be on the utility system. Ideally, there would be only one ground path for lightning within a
facility, but many facilities have multiple paths. For example, there may be a driven ground at
the service entrance or substation transformer and a second ground at a water well that actually
creates a better ground. Thus, when lightning strikes, the bulk of the surge current will tend to
flow toward the well. This can impress an excessively high voltage across the pump insulation,
even if the electrical system is not intentionally bonded to a second ground. When lightning
strikes, the potentials can become so great that the power system insulation will flash over
somewhere.

The amount of current flowing between the grounds may be reduced by improving all the
intentional grounds at the service entrance and nearby on the utility system. This will normally
reduce, but not eliminate entirely, the incidence of equipment failure within the facility due to
lightning. However, some structures also have significant lightning exposure, and the damaging
surge currents can flow back into the utility grounds. It doesn’t matter which direction the
currents flow; they cause the same problems. Again, the same principle applies, which is to
improve the grounds for the structure to minimize the amount of current that might seek another
path to ground.

When it is impractical to keep the currents from flowing between two grounds, both ends
of any power or signal cables running between the two grounds must be protected with voltage-
limiting devices to ensure adequate protection. This is common practice for both utility and
enduser systems where a control cabinet is located quite some distance from the switch, or other
device, being controlled.

2. Discuss the voltage Swell mitigation techniques?

i. DVR ,(Dynamic voltage restorer)

ii. Power Conditioners,
iii. Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT)

i. DVR,(Dynamic voltage restorer)

The DVR uses a voltage source converter (VSC) connected in series with the protected
load (through an insertion transformer for medium voltage applications) to compensate
amplitude and phase angle of the voltage applied to the load. The dc capacitor between the
charger and the VSC serves as an energy buffer, generating and absorbing power during voltage
sags and voltage swells, respectively. This process enables the voltage, as seen by the load, to be
of the desired magnitude whenever disturbances occur upstream.

Fig2.6 Basic configuration of DVR

ii. Power Conditioners (we prefer low impedance power conditioner)

A power conditioner (also known as a line conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device
intended
 • To improve the “quality” of the power that is delivered to electrical load equipment.
• To deliver a voltage of the proper level and characteristics to enable load equipment to function
properly. In some usages, “power conditioner” refers to a voltage regulator with at least one
other function to improve power quality (e.g. noise suppression, transient impulse protection,
etc.).
• Power or line conditioners regulate, filter, and suppress noise in AC power for sensitive
computer and other solid state equipment.
• They provide electrical isolation and noise and spike attenuation to ensure the quality and
consistency of power to sensitive medical, laboratory, computer, and other high technology
equipment.
Construction
Power conditioners typically consist of voltage regulators in combination with output
isolation transformers and transient voltage suppression circuitry.
Important Specification
Important specifications to consider when searching for power conditioners include power
rating, input voltage, output voltage, voltage regulation accuracy, phase, and frequency

iii. Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT)

Constant Voltage Transformers (CVTs) (same as Ferroresonant transformers)

Basically 1:1 transformers that can handle most voltage swell ( sag also) conditions.
secondary winding outputs a nearly constant voltage despite significant variations in supply
(primary winding) voltage ( nothing more to explain because there is no chance that it
will be asked as an individual question if asked that will be under Unit-2.

3. Discuss the various devices for Overvoltage Protection

The various Devices for over voltage protection are

i. Surge arrester & transient voltage surge suppressor

ii. Isolation transformer
iii. Low-pass filters
iv. Low impedance power conditioner
v. Utility surge arrester

i. Surge arrester & transient voltage surge suppressor

A surge diverter is a device that is connected between line and earth, ie., in parallel with the
equipment under protection at the substation. It limits the duration and amplitude of the follow
current by transferring the high voltage surges on power system to ground. Transient voltage
surge suppressor is a protective device for limiting transient voltages by diverting or limiting
surge current. It also prevents continued flow of follow current while remaining capable of
repeating these functions.

Fig 3.12 Location comparison of TVSS and surge arrester.

A surge arrester, or surge diverter, acts like a trapdoor to excess electrical energy.
Sometimes called over-voltages, or transients, or surges, unwanted bursts of electricity are
lured(attracted) to the trapdoor by what is called a low-impedance path to ground. The trapdoor
is a metal oxide varistor, or MOV, which opens or "clamps" when the overvoltage exceeds a
certain level, and safely diverts most of the excess energy to the ground rod.

When the over-voltage or transient is over, the MOV automatically resets and is ready for
the next one. It is important to note that with lightning or other fast acting impulses, the leading
edge of the impulse will pass the first MOV, even as the majority of the surge is racing to, and
through, the trapdoor, hence the need for a second stage "point of use" plug-in type surge arrester
inside the home or business.

ii. ISOLATION TRANSFRMER

If an isolation transformer (a transformer with the same number of “turns” in the primary
and secondary coils) is connected between an AC source and an AC load, we will measure the
same voltage and the same current at both source and load terminals.

Fig 3.13 conceptual diagram of an isolation transformer.

An isolation transformer is a transformer, often with symmetrical windings, which is used

to decouple two circuits. An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to be taken from
one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits. Isolation
transformers block transmission of DC signals from one circuit to the other, but allow AC signals
to pass.

[In an electrical system, ground loop refers to a current, generally unwanted, in a conductor
connecting two points that are supposed to be at the same potential, often ground, but are
actually at different potentials. Ground loops can be detrimental to the intended operation of the
electrical system.]

Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for sensitive
equipment such as computers or laboratory instruments. as shown in fig3.14 below.

Fig.3.14 Isolation transformer with electrostatic shields

Advantages

• They also block interference caused by ground loops.

• They also attenuate high frequency noise and transients from one side to other.
• Voltage notching due to power electronic switching can be eliminated to the load
side
• Capacitor switching and lightning transients coming from the utility system can be
attenuated

• And moreover they allow the user to define a new ground reference

iii. Low pass filter

A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the
amplitude of signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. Low pass filters are
composed of series inductors and parallel capacitors this L-C combination provides a
low impedance path to ground for selected resonant frequencies.

The low pass filter limits transfer of high frequency transients. The inductor helps
in blocking high - frequency transients and forces them in to the first supressor. The
capacitor limits the rate of riseof the voltage magnitude Fig 3.15 shows a hybrid transient
protector where voltage clamping devices are added in parallel to the capacitors.

Fig 3.14 A hybrid transient protector with low pass filter.

iv. Low impedance power conditioner.

Fig3.15 Low impedance power conditioner

Switch mode power supplies in modern computer systems use current from the power line
in large, brief “gulps”. They want little or no opposition to their demands for current. By
definition, this makes switch mode power supplies a “low impedance load”.

Like an audio system, low impedance loads need to be matched with their power source. In
this case of a system with a switch mode power supply, this source must be low impedance at
power line frequencies but offer high impedance to noise and unwanted power disturbances.
These modern power supplies should never be mismatched with a high impedance.

These line conditioners provide the best all-round power conditioning and surge protection
for sensitive electronic equipment. . The integral isolation transformer provide complete isolation
between the primary and secondary, and permits bonding its output neutral to ground, which
completely eliminates all disturbances between neutral and ground, regardless of source. The
series inductance of the isolation transformer in combination with capacitive elements and
MOVs, provide superb noise filtering, as well as coordinated multi-stage surge protection.

Applications include:

• Sensitive telecommunications,
• Radio base stations (RBS)/base transmitter stations (BTS),
• Industrial and medical equipment,
• Other sensitive, specialized microprocessor-based equipment.

v. Utility surge arrestor

The three most common surge arrester technologies employed by utilities are,

I) Gapped silicon Carbide

II) Gapped MOV
III) Gapless MOV. Most arrester manufactured today use a MOV as the main voltage
limiting elements. The Chief ingredient of a MOV is Zinc Oxide. (ZnO).

I) Gapped silicon Carbide

The older technology arrester use silicon carbide as the(SiC) energy dissipating
non linear resistive element. As (SiC) is not ideal it is not non-linear enough and thus
imposes certain design restriction. It allows the spark gap to clear and reseal without
causing a fault and reduced the sparkover transient to 50% of the total sparkover
voltage.
 Gaps are necessary with the SiC because an economical SiC element giving the
required discharge voltage is unable to withstand continues system operating voltage.

II) Gapped MOV

The gapped MOV tech. was introduced commercially in the early 90’s and
accepted in some applications where there is need for increased protective margins. This
technology combines resistance graded gaps and MOV blocks. It has a lower lightning
discharge voltage but has a higher transient over voltage withstand characteristics.

III) Gapless MOV

The recently developed ideal surge arrester. It is a revolutionary advanced surge

protective device for power systems. It is constructed by a series connection of zinc
oxide (ZnO) elements having a highly non linear resistance. The excellent non-linear
characteristic of zinc oxide elements has enabled to make surge arresters without series
connected spark gaps. i.e. fully solid state arresters suitable for system protection up to
the highest voltages. It is dimensioned so that the peak value of the phase to
ground voltage in Normal operation never exceeds the sum of the rated voltages of
the series connected disc. Fig 3.16 shows the comparative lightning wave discharge
voltage characteristic for an 8X20μs(front time 8 μs and tail time 20 μs)

Fig 3.16

4. Discuss the common utility surge arresters with comparative wave discharge
characteristics.

[ref previous question less chance for such a question because it come under HVE and
PROTECTION.]

5. Name the different methods Utility System Lightning protection?

The different methods of Utility System Lightning protection are,

i. shielding
ii. line arrester

i. shielding
 One of the strategies open to utilities for lines that are particularly susceptible to lightning
strikes is to shield the line by installing a grounded neutral wire over the phase wires. This will
intercept most lightning strokes before they strike the phase wires. This can help, but will not
necessarily prevent line flashovers because of the possibility of back flashovers.

Shielding overhead utility lines is common at transmission voltage levels and in substations,
but is not common on distribution lines because of the added cost of taller poles and the lower
benefit due to lower flashover levels of the lines. On distribution circuits, the grounded neutral
wire is typically installed underneath the phase conductors to facilitate the connection of line-to-
neutral connected equipment such as transformers and capacitors. Shielding is not quite as
simple as adding a wire and grounding it every few poles. When lightning strikes the shield wire,
the voltages at the top of the pole will still be extremely high and could cause back flashovers to
the line. This will result in a temporary fault. To minimize this possibility, the path of the ground
lead down the pole must be carefully chosen to maintain adequate clearance with the phase
conductors. Also, the grounding resistance plays an important role in the magnitude of the
voltage and must be maintained as low as possible. However, when it becomes obvious that a
particular section of feeder is being struck frequently, it may be justifiable to retrofit that section
with a shield wire to reduce the number of transient faults and to maintain a higher level of
power quality. Figure 4.29 illustrates this concept. It is not uncommon for a few spans near the
substation to be shielded.

The substation is generally shielded anyway, and this helps prevent high-current faults close to
the substation that can damage the substation transformer and breakers. It is also common near
substations for distribution lines to be underbuilt on transmission or sub transmission structures.
Since the transmission is shielded, this provides shielding for the distribution as well, provided
adequate clearance can be maintained for the ground lead. This is not always an easy task.
Another section of the feeder may crest a ridge giving it unusual exposure to lightning. Shielding
in that area may be an effective way of Ref page 145 Dugan very clearly given. Draw the fig
given in page 146.

Figure 4.29 Shielding a portion of a distribution feeder to reduce the incidence of temporary lightning-induced faults.

reducing lightning-induced faults. Poles in the affected section may have to be extended to
accommodate the shield wire and considerable effort put into improving the grounds. This
increases the cost of this solution. It is possible that line arresters would be a more economical
and effective option for many applications.

ii. Line arrester

Another strategy for lines that are struck frequently is to apply arresters periodically along
the phase wires. Normally, lines flash over first at the pole insulators. Therefore, preventing
insulator flashover will reduce the interruption and sag rate significantly. Stansberry6 argues that
this is more economical than shielding and results in fewer line flashovers. Neither shielding nor
line arresters will prevent all flashovers from lightning. The aim is to significantly reduce
flashovers in particular trouble spots.
 As shown in Fig. 4.30, the arresters bleed off some of the stroke current as it passes along
the line. The amount that an individual arrester bleeds off will depend on the grounding
resistance. The idea is to space the arresters sufficiently close to prevent the voltage at
unprotected poles in the middle from exceeding the basic impulse level (BIL) of the line
insulators. This usually requires an arrester at every second or third pole. In the case of a feeder
supplying a highly critical load, or a feeder with high ground resistance, it may be necessary to
place arresters at every pole.

A transients study of different configurations will show what is required. Some utilities
place line arresters only on the top phase when one phase is mounted higher than the others. In
other geometries, it will be necessary to put arresters on all three phases to achieve a consistent
reduction in flashovers.

Figure 4.30 Periodically spaced line arresters help prevent flashovers.

Figure 4.31 Typical polymer-housed utility distribution arrester for overhead line applications. (Courtesy of Cooper
Power Systems.)

Figure 4.31 shows a typical utility arrester that is used for overhead line protection applications.
This model consists of MOV blocks encapsulated in a polymer housing that is resistant to
sunlight and other natural elements. Older-technology models used porcelain housings like that
shown on the primary side of the transformer in Fig. 4.33. There are already sufficient arresters
on many lines in densely populated areas in North America to achieve sufficient line protection.
These arresters are on the distribution transformers, which are installed close together and in
sufficient numbers in these areas to help protect the lines from flashover.

6. Write a note on PSAD

PSCAD stands for Power Systems Computer Aided Design, and represents a family of
power system simulation products. Presently, it is used as a Graphical User Interface for the
EMTDC™ transients' instantaneous solution engine. e, and easy-to-use power , power quality an
 iPSCAD becomes an indispensable tool for a variety of power system designs and studies. It
is a multi-purpose tool. It is equally capable in the areas of power electronic design and
simulation, power quality analysis, and electrical utility system planning studies.

As electrical power and power electronic systems become more prevalent in electric
vehicles, ships, trains, and distributed generation systems, the need for easy-to-use and accurate
simulation and modeling tools becomes ever more important. It is easier and much less
expensive to design and optimize electrical devices and systems prior to prototyping or
manufacturing. Thus, PSCAD is becoming a true Power System Computer-Aided Design tool for
a variety of industry application.-purpose tool. It is equally capable in the areas of power electron

PSCAD users include engineers and technologists from energy utilities, electrical
equipment manufacturers, engineering consulting firms, and research and academic institutions.
PSCAD is used in the planning, design, and operational phases of power systems. It is also very
prevalent in power system research around the world.

Some typical examples of how PSCAD™ can be applied to better understand electrical
power systems are:

• To find over-voltages in a power system due to a fault condition (incorporates transformer

non-linearities; provides multiple-run capability to determine best/worst-case scenarios in terms
of location of fault, point-on-wave of the fault, and type of fault).

• To find over-voltages in a power system due to an event such as a lightning strike

(accommodates a nano-second time step).

• To find the harmonics generated by virtually any power electronic device or system,
including STATCOM's, HVDC transmission links, SVC's, and machine drives (provides
accurate models of the power electronic switching devices such as thyristors, GTO's, IGBT's,
diodes, etc.; includes detailed analog and digital control system models).

• To investigate and mitigate the pulsing effects of diesel generators and wind turbines, as
well as other devices on the overall electric power grid.

• To find the maximum energy in a surge arrester for a given electrical disturbance.

• To design and fine tune control systems to optimize performance.

• To investigate the sub-synchronous response (SSR) impact when a machine and multi-mass
turbine interact with power electronic equipment or series compensated transmission lines.
• To model voltage source converters (VSC) or STATCOMs along with their detailed control
systems models.
• To investigate power system instabilities created by harmonic resonance or control system
interactions.
• To perform insulation co-ordination studies.

• To design and simulate variable speed drives of many types including cyclo-converters and
electric vehicle and ship propulsion system drives.

• To design industrial systems, such as compensation controllers, power electronic drives,

electric furnaces, and filters.

• To study the transient and harmonic impact of distributed generation systems such as wind
and micro-turbine systems on the power grid.
• To study and mitigate capacitor switching transients.

• To study the system impact of transmission line imbalances during contingency periods.
PSCAD is a multi-purpose power system simulator and can thus be used for any scenario where
a detailed understanding of the full time domain of analysis is beneficial. This includes the
design and modeling of virtually any electrical power system.

7. Write a note on EMTP.

The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) is a computer program for simulating

electromagnetic, electromechanical, and control system transients on multi-phase electric power
systems and it’s derivatives Alternative Transients Program (ATP).

Studies involving use of the EMTP fall in two general categories.

• One is design, which includes insulation coordination, equipment ratings, protective device
specification, control systems design, etc.

• The other is solving operational problems such as unexplained outages or equipment failures.

COMPONENTS

• Uncoupled and coupled linear, lumped R,L,C elements.

• Transmission lines and cables with distributed and frequency-dependent parameters.

• Nonlinear resistances and inductances, hysteretic inductor, time-varying resistance,

TACS/MODELS controlled resistance.

• Components with nonlinearities: transformers including saturation and hysteresis, surge

arresters (gapless and with gap), arcs.

• Ordinary switches, time-dependent and voltage-dependent switches, statistical switching

(Monte-Carlo studies).

• Valves (diodes, thyristors, triacs), TACS/MODELS controlled switches.

• Analytical sources: step, ramp, sinusoidal, exponential surge functions, TACS/MODELS

defined sources.

• Rotating machines: 3-phase synchronous machine, universal machine model.

• User-defined electrical components that include MODELS interaction

Typical Applications

EMTP is used world-wide for switching and lightning surge analysis, insulation
coordination and shaft torsional oscillation studies, protective relay modeling, harmonic and
power quality studies, HVDC and FACTS modeling. Typical EMTP studies are:

• Lightning overvoltage studies

• Switching transients and faults
• Statistical and systematic overvoltage studies
• Very fast transients in GIS and groundings
• Machine modeling
 • Transient stability, motor startup
• Shaft torsional oscillations
• Transformer and shunt reactor/capacitor switching
• Ferroresonance
• Power electronic applications
• Circuit breaker duty (electric arc), current chopping
• FACTS devices: STATCOM, SVC, UPFC, TCSC modeling
• Harmonic analysis, network resonances
• Protective device testing

Some Additional Information

Noise- Electrical noise, or noise, is unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects
in the circuits in which they occur.

Common Mode Noise- Common Mode Noise present equally and in phase in each current
carrying wire with respect to a ground plane or a circuit. Common mode noise can be caused by
radiated emission from a source of EMI. Common mode noise can also couple from one circuit
to another by inductive or capacitive means. Lightning discharges may also produce common
mode noise in power wiring.

Ground loop- Potentially detrimental loop formed when two or more points in an electrical
system that are nominally at ground potential are connected by a conducting path such that either
or both points are not at the same ground potential.