TYPES OF ERROR
Why errors occur ?
Errors happen due to many reasons:
• Mistake by the person (reading wrong)
• Fault in instrument
• Environmental effects (temperature, humidity, etc.)
• Random fluctuations
GROSS ERRORS
• Occur due to human mistakes
• Caused by carelessness or lack of experience
• Also called Personal Errors
• Include wrong reading, recording, or calculation
• Cannot eliminate fully, but can reduce
Causes of Gross Errors
• Misreading the instrument scale
• Wrong recording of values
• Incorrect calculations
• Improper adjustment of instruments
• Human fatigue or inexperience
How to Reduce Gross Errors
• Take readings carefully and attentively
• Use multiple readings (minimum 3)
• Prefer readings taken by different observers
• Maintain same measurement conditions
• Double-check all calculations
Examples of Gross Errors
• Reading 6.5 instead of 5.6
• Writing 24.3 as 42.3
• Forgetting to zero the instrument
• Misplacing decimal point in calculation
WHAT IS SYSTEMATIC ERROR?
• Systematic error is the error that always occurs in one
direction (either always positive or always negative).
• It happens repeatedly and predictably due to a fault in the
instrument, observer, or environment.
These errors affect accuracy of measurement.
TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Systematic errors are mainly of three types:
Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors occur due to problems within the
measuring instrument itself.
They mainly happen due to three reasons:
Shortcomings of Instruments
Errors caused due to the mechanical limitations or design
defects of the instrument.
Examples:
• Friction in moving parts
• Irregular spring tension
• Hysteresis
• Gear backlash
• Pointer sticking
• Variation in air gap
• Stretching of springs
How to reduce:
• Use a proper instrument
• Understand the instrument limitations
• Apply correction factors
• Calibrate the instrument regularly
Misuse of Instruments
Errors caused when a good instrument is used incorrectly.
Examples:
• Poorly adjusted instruments
• Using wrong range
• Not setting zero properly
• Using wrong leads
• Using instrument in abnormal conditions
Misuse does not permanently damage the instrument but causes
serious reading errors.
Loading Effects
Occurs when the instrument changes the circuit conditions
while measuring.
Example:
• A voltmeter with high internal resistance gives correct
readings
• A voltmeter with low resistance affects the circuit and
gives wrong readings
How to reduce:
• Use instruments intelligently
• Choose instruments with correct internal resistance
Environmental Errors
Environmental errors are caused due to external conditions
around the measuring instrument.
These conditions include:
• Temperature changes
• Pressure changes
• Humidity
• Thermal EMF
• Stray capacitance and inductance
• Cross capacitance
• Vibrations
• External magnetic or electric fields
• Aging of equipment
• Frequency sensitivity
These external factors affect the accuracy of measurement
How to Reduce Environmental Errors
1. Use proper correction factors
o Apply manufacturer’s recommended correction
values.
2. Keep surrounding conditions constant
o Use air-conditioning, temperature control enclosures,
humidity control, etc.
3. Reduce dust and moisture effects
o Hermetically seal (airtight seal) instrument
components.
4. Protect from external magnetic and electric fields
o Use magnetic or electrostatic shields/screens.
5. Use environmentally stable instruments
o Use materials and equipment designed to withstand
temperature or humidity variations.
Observational Errors
Observational errors are the errors introduced by the observer
while taking measurements.
These errors occur because of:
• Parallax error (eye not in line with the scale)
• Wrong scale reading
• Poor eyesight
• Delay in reading or reaction time
• Observer’s habits and inexperience
How to reduce observational errors:
1. Use instruments carefully and correctly
o Observe readings at eye level to avoid parallax error.
2. Use good-quality instruments
o Knife-edged pointers, mirrors, fine scales.
3. Prefer digital instruments
o Digital displays greatly reduce reading mistakes.
Static and Dynamic Observational Errors:
• Static errors:
Caused by limitations of the measuring device during
steady readings.
• Dynamic errors:
Occur when the instrument does not respond fast enough to
follow the changing quantity.
Random Errors
Even after removing systematic and instrumental errors, some
errors still remain.
These are called random errors.
Why they occur / Causes:
• Small, unpredictable variations during measurement
• Fluctuations in environment
• Noise or vibration
• Human reaction time differences
• Sudden change in reading
• Instrument sensitivity variations
These errors cannot be predicted or removed completely.
Characteristics of Random Errors:
• They are accidental in nature
• Follow laws of probability
• Are small and vary in magnitude and direction
• Cannot be corrected using normal calibration
How to reduce random errors:
1. Take a large number of readings
o More observations reduce uncertainty.
2. Use statistical methods
o Mean, standard deviation, and probability distribution
give the best estimate.
3. Use averaging techniques
o The average value gives more accurate results.