Lecture 3:
Microevolution
and Hardy-
Weinberg
genetics
BIO101-SN2: Ecology and
Evolution
Fall 2024
Microevolution
is the smallest
unit of evolution
• Microevolution is a change in
allele frequencies in a
population over generations
• Three mechanisms cause
allele frequency change:
• Natural selection
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow
• Mutations
• Only natural selection
consistently causes adaptive
evolution
Microevolution
Genetic Basis of Evolution
• Recall that Evolution occurs in populations not individuals.
• Recall that Populations are all the individuals of the same
species that live in a particular place at the same time.
• Variations in traits
• Some variation due to
environment, and some
due to heredity
• Evolution is the change in the frequency of genes within a
population over several generations. Changes in the gene
frequency directly influence the traits and characteristics of
a species
Genetic variation is essential for evolution
DNA: the “blueprint” for an organism
-found in the nucleus of the cell in the form of chromosomes/chromatin
Genes: are the units of heredity which are made up of DNA and are located on
chromosomes
Gene: A section of DNA that
contains the instructions for a trait.
They specify proteins.
[Link]
A segment of the DNA that
marine-evolutionary- codes for a specific protein is
biology/management- called a gene.
conservation/baltgene/this-is-genetic-
biodiversity
Example: Evolution of red squirrel populations
• Female red squirrels
in Yukon now give
birth 18 days earlier
than decade ago
• Offspring born earlier
tend to be larger and
be independent by
winter; thus, they
have higher survival
rates
Important definitions
Allele: a different version of a gene
Ex: there are different alleles determining eye colour
The gene pool, consists of the total diversity of genes and alleles
in a population or species
Alleles
Genes can come in different forms called
alleles
Each number represents a chromosome
One set is acquired from each paremt
Genotype Versus
Phenotype
• The Genotype is the combination of
alleles (i.e the code/arrangement of
letters in the DNA sequence as
represented by different letters)
• The phenotype is the appearance
• Phenotype includes environmental(i.e.
diet etc.) influences
Genotype Versus Phenotype
Genotypic
diversity
Phenotypic
diversity
Genetic Variation
• Genetic variation can be measured as gene variability or nucleotide
variability
• Nucleotide variability is measured by comparing DNA sequences of pairs of
individuals
• Nucleotide variability rarely results in phenotypic variation
Sources of Genetic Variation
• New genes and alleles can arise by mutation or gene duplication
• Sexual reproduction can result in genetic variation by recombining existing
alleles
Homologous recombination
Formation of New Alleles
• A mutation is a random change in nucleotide sequence
of DNA
• A point mutation is a change in one base in a gene
• Only mutation is cells that produce gametes can be
passed to offspring
• This is how new alleles arise
Non-Genetic Variation can environmental
• Some phenotypic variation does not result from genetic
differences, but rather from environmental influences
• For example, caterpillars can have different appearances due to
chemicals in diet, not their genotype
• Only genetically determined variation can have evolutionary
consequences
Figure 23.5 Nonheritable variation.
Genetic Variation makes Evolution Possible
• Individuals of a population generally have
the same number and kind of genes
• Genes come in different allelic forms, and
this leads to variations in their traits
Gene Pool: all the alleles for all
the loci present in the population
Ø Diploid organisms have 2
alleles at each genetic locus
Ø Each individual only has a
small fraction of the alleles
present in the population’s
gene pool
Evolution:
genetic change over time or a process of descent with modification.
Coltman et al. (2003) found that
over a 30-year period, when
about 10% of the males were
removed by hunting each year,
the average size of males and
the average size of their horns
decreased.
Horn size in bighorn sheep
is a heritable trait.
Because trophy hunting
selectively eliminates rams
with large horns, it favors
rams with genes for small
horns.
Université de Sherbrooke, QC
Evolution of Populations:
the study of Microevolution
• Microevolution: Is change in the genetic makeup of a population
from generation to generation (evolutionary change below the species
level)
Example: Ground Finch
Ø 1977 severe drought
Ø during drought, small soft seeds
in short supply, large hard seeds
more plentiful
Ø large-beaked birds were more
likely to crack large seeds and
survive
Ø The finch population evolved by
natural selection
This is microevolution since the change didn’t result in
a new species… but the genetic makeup of the
population has changed
Let’s review terms
Phenotypes: How many and what? A) Flowers B) Moths
Genotypes? How many and what? A) Flowers B) Moths
Alleles? How many and what? A) Flowers B) Moths
Genotype and Allele Frequency
Geno- Numb Genotype
Genotype frequency: type er frequency
• The proportion of a particular AA 490 0.49
genotype in the population
Aa 420 0.42
Ø Ex: population of 1000 individuals
aa 90 0.09
total 1000 1
Allele frequency: (A or a)
Allele frequency: proportion of a Ex: 1000 individuals
specific allele in a pop. (diploid) X 2 = 2000 alleles
490 AA = 980 A alleles Allele Number Allele
of each frequency
420 Aa = 420 A alleles and 420 a alleles allele
90 aa = 180 a alleles A 1400 0.7
a 600 0.3
Total = 1400 AA 600 aa
total 2000 1
Allele freq = 0.7 (1400/2000) 0.3 (600/2000)
Genetic Equilibrium
• Frequencies of alleles do not change from generation to generation unless
influenced by outside factors.
• A population whose allele frequency does not change from one generation to
the next are at equilibrium.
• At equilibrium: not evolving with respect to the locus being studied.
• If allele frequency changes over generations è evolution is occurring.
Genetic Equilibrium MICROEVOLUTION
Generation 1
Generation 1
• No change in • There is a
genotypic or change in
allelic genotypic or
frequency. Generation 2 allelic Generation 2
frequency.
• Population
is at • Population is
NOT at
equilibrium. equilibrium. Generation 3
Generation 3
• Population is NOT EVOLVING. • Population is EVOLVING.
Microevolution is a change in allele
frequencies in a population over
generations
Alleles are denoted as a pair for diploid
individuals
• If there are two or more alleles for a locus,
a diploid individual may be either
homozygous (HH, hh) or heterozygous (Hh)
• The frequency of an allele in population can
be calculated:
• For diploid organisms, the total
number of alleles at a locus is the
total number of individuals times 2
• The total number of dominant alleles
at a locus is 2 alleles for homozygous
dominant individual plus 1 allele for
each heterozygous individual; the
same logic applies for recessive alleles
Allelic frequencies Can be
calculated based on the
Hardy-Weinberg equation
• By convention, if there are 2 alleles at
a locus, p and q are used to represent
their frequencies
• Frequency of all alleles in a population
will add up to 1
• That is, p + q = 1
The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
• Describes the genetic makeup we expect for a population that is not
evolving at a particular locus
• If the observed genetic makeup of the population differs from Hardy-
Weinberg expectations, it can be concluded that population may be
evolving
Hardy-Weinberg Principle to calculate
white and red alleles in flowers
• For example, consider a population of wildflowers incompletely
dominant for colour:
• 320 red flowers (CRCR)
• 160 pink flowers (CRCW)
• 20 white flowers (CWCW)
• Calculate the number of copies of each allele:
• CR = (320 ´ 2) + 160 = 800
• CW = (20 ´ 2) + 160 = 200
• To calculate frequency of each allele:
Øp = freq CR = 800 / (800 + 200) = 0.8
Øq = freq CW = 200 / (800 + 200) = 0.2
• The sum of alleles is always 1:
0.8 + 0.2 = 1
Hardy-Weinberg: Selecting Alleles at Random
from a Gene Pool
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes the
constant frequency of alleles in such a gene
pool
• Consider, for example, the same population
of 500 wildflowers and 1,000 alleles, where:
• p = freq CR = 0.8
• q = freq CW = 0.2
HARDY-WEINBERG equilibrium can be used to
calculate genotypes
• Frequency of genotypes can be calculated:
ØCRCR = p2 = (0.8)2 = 0.64
ØCRCW = 2pq = 2(0.8)(0.2) = 0.32
ØCWCW = q2 = (0.2)2 = 0.04
• Frequency of genotypes can be confirmed using a Punnett square
(next slide)
Hardy-Weinberg: Calculating Genotypes
Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Table 23.1 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium
Condition Consequence if Condition Does Not Hold
1. No mutations The gene pool is modified if mutations occur or if entire
genes are deleted or duplicated.
2. Random mating If individuals mate within a subset of the population, such as near
neighbours or close relatives (inbreeding), random mixing of gametes
does not occur and genotype frequencies change.
3. No natural Allele frequencies change when individuals with different
selection genotypes show consistent differences in their survival or
reproductive success.
4. Extremely large In small populations, allele frequencies fluctuate by chance over time
population size (a process called genetic drift).
5. No gene flow By moving alleles into or out of populations, gene flow can
alter allele frequencies.
Copyright © 2025 Pearson Canada, Inc. 23 - 28
THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
• If p and q represent relative frequencies of only two possible alleles in
a population at a particular locus, then:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes
• where 2pq represents frequency of the heterozygous genotype
Applying the Hardy-Weinberg Principle
• We can assume the locus that causes phenylketonuria (PKU) is in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium given that:
1. The PKU gene mutation rate is low
2. Mate selection random with respect to whether or not an
individual is a carrier for the PKU allele
3. Natural selection can only act on rare homozygous individuals
who do not follow dietary restrictions
4. The population is large
5. Migration has no effect as many other populations have similar
allele frequencies
Applying the Hardy-Weinberg Principle
• The occurrence of PKU is 1 per 10,000 births
• q2 = 0.0001
• q = 0.01
• The frequency of normal alleles is
• p = 1 – q = 1 – 0.01 = 0.99
• The frequency of carriers is
• 2pq = 2 ´ 0.99 ´ 0.01 = 0.0198
• or approximately 2% of Canadian population
Sample Problem
• Albinism (deficiency in pigment melanin) occurs 1/20 000 individuals
in North America. It is caused by a recessive allele.
• Give the frequencies of each of the genotypes and phenotypes associated
with albinism.
Solution
• q2 = albinism phenotype = 1 / 20 000 = 0.00005
√ q2 = q= 0.007 (q=a, recessive allele)
1-q= p so 1-0.007= 0.993 = p (p=A, dominant allele)
Plug in numbers in H-W equation: p2+2pq+q2= 1
(0.993)2 + 2(0.993)(0.007) + (0.007)2 = 0.986049 + 0,013902 + 0.000050 =1
P2 =98,6049 % : is not albino
2pq =1,3902 % : is not albino
Total non albino is : 99,9950 % (19 999/20000)
q2 =0,0050 % : is albino
Bioflix: Mechanisms of Evolution
Copyright © 2025 Pearson Canada, Inc. 23 - 34
Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg: Natural Selection
• Differential success in reproduction results in certain
alleles being passed to the next generation in greater
proportions
• Natural selection can cause adaptive evolution, an
improvement in the match between organisms and
their environment
• For example, an allele conferring resistance to DDT
in fruit flies increased in frequency after DDT was
used widely in agriculture
3 ways Natural
Selection can
Selective pressures in an
alter population’s env. tend to ‘select’ for
freq. distribution specific phenotypes in a
pop.:
–Favors individuals –Favors individuals at –Favors intermediate
at one extreme of the both extremes of the variants and acts against
phenotypic range phenotypic range extreme phenotypes
Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
Genetic Drift: Random Shift
chance / random events determine which
alleles are passed on to the next
generation
• Describes how allele frequencies can fluctuate
unpredictably from one generation to the next.
• Alleles may be eliminated from population purely
by chance regardless if beneficial or harmful.
Ø Statistically, the smaller a sample, the greater the
chance of deviation from a predicted result {ex. coin
toss}, therefore GD is especially important in small
populations
Decreases genetic variation within a population
Increase genetic differences among different populations
Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
[Link] Drift
• Describes how allele frequencies can fluctuate unpredictably
from one generation to the next
• Tends to reduce genetic variation
Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
[Link] Drift
3. Genetic Drift: Bottleneck
• The bottleneck effect occurs when
the numbers of individuals in a
population are drastically reduced
• Events like natural disasters
(earthquakes, floods, fires) can
decimate a population, killing most
individuals and leaving behind a small,
random assortment of survivors.
• Allele frequencies in this group may be
very different from those of the
population prior to the event, and some
alleles may be missing entirely.
• By chance, some alleles may be over-
represented and others underrepresented
or even eliminated among the survivors.
[Link] Drift:
Founder Effect
• Occurs when a few individuals
become isolated from a larger
population
• Small fraction of a population
establishes a new population, they
bring with them only a small Ex 2. Dwarfism
Amish population stems from a small number of
fraction of the genetic variability about 200 immigrants, one must have carried a
gene defect for the disorder.
in the original population
• Allele freq of newly found
population different than those of
the parent population.
Effects of Genetic Drift: Summary
1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations
2. Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random
3. Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations
4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
4. Gene flow
4. Gene flow: Gene flow consists of movement of alleles among populations
• Results from the movement of fertile individuals - Migration of
breeding individuals between populations cause a movement of
alleles
• May cause a population to lose alleles (loosing genetic variability),
and other population to gain some (increasing genetic variability)
• Mixing of individuals between
populations tends to reduce
differences between
populations over time.
• Can counter genetic drift
and natural selection
Nonrandom mating
Sexual Selection
• Sexual selection: selection for mating
success. Can result in sexual dimorphism,
marked differences between the sexes in
secondary sexual characteristics
Females can choose
males based on
favoured
characteristics à
ßMales compete
for females and
can have
specialized
adaptations for
fighting
Sexual Selection
INTRAsexual selection: direct competition among individuals of
one sex for mates of the opposite sex (within the same sex)
INTERsexual selection: Occurs when individuals of one sex
(usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from
individuals of the other sex (aka mate choice)
Intrasexual selection
[Link]
re=related
[Link]
Intersexual selection