CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

According to the results of the TIMSS (Mullis et al., 2020) the country's Grade

4 students performed the worst out of 58 countries. The Philippines received 297

points in mathematics and 249 points in science, trailing the other countries. As a

result, the majority of Filipino Grade 5 pupils can read a variety of daily texts,

according to research performed by the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education

Organization and UNICEF (2019), but just 1% attain "high levels" of proficiency. The

performance of Filipino students in national and international mathematics

assessments has dropped during the previous decade.

According to Jitendra and Star (2011), around 7% of youngsters struggle with

math and, as a result, perform poorly in a variety of arithmetic domains. In recent

years, teachers have observed a decrease in pupils' mathematical comprehension as

a result of a shift from procedural to conceptual knowledge.

According to Jitendra and Star's (2011) study, children with learning difficulties

have trouble answering problems because they have trouble understanding a range

of mathematical ideas. The complexity of word problems seems to make it harder for

kids to solve them. Griffin and Jitendra (2008) looked at the claim that in order to

answer story issues, students need to comprehend "semantic structure and

mathematical links, as well as essential numerical abilities and methodologies."

According to Castro et al. (1992) and Sanz et al. (2020), the complexity of

AWPs is also known as working with arithmetic word problems (AWPs, or AWP in

singular), and they are trying to figure out how to quantify the complexity of the

sentences involved. Texts or statements that describe real-life scenarios in which

unknown numbers must be estimated from known amounts are known as AWPs.

They are among the very first problem-solving tasks in the primary school math

curriculum. It may be assessed using four different approaches:

Different Approaches and Definition of Approach

Linguistic Approach

Based on the readability of external resources and the student's reading skills.

Structural Variables Approach

Based on Kilpatrick's or Goldin and McClintock's task factors. Syntactic or contextual variables

Open Sentences Approach

Based on the context of the question inside the statement.

Semantic Approach

In the partial solution procedure, associations between keywords and operators can be built

based on the semantic structure of the statement as a whole or broken into segments.

This feature distinguishes the work as a distinct and one-of-a-kind contribution

to the state-of-the-art in mathematical problem-solving. No previous study has studied

the complexity of AWPs by assessing students' comprehension of the statement itself

(Castro et al., 1992).

Moyer et al. (1984) observed that, contrary to the memory overload rationale,

a telegraphic format did not appear to increase students' performance on narrative

tasks in a previous study.

In fact, students labeled as having high ability based on total test performance

performed somewhat better on the tasks when they were presented in a typical verbal

manner. They proposed that the benefit of lowering the amount of words in the

telegraphic format may be negated by other variables. For example, if contextual

clues are reduced, it may be difficult for a learner to parse phrase fragments into

concepts that recall similar experiences from the past. As a result, the learner may

find it more difficult to learn. Identify a suitable problem-solving framework.

They compared children's performance in solving word problems in three

formats: first, drawn (a drawing of elements referenced in the issue is labeled with

brief phrases); second, verbal (the problem is expressed in full words); and third,

telegraphic (the verbiage is condensed into brief phrases).

The current researcher included the three formats in their study; First, the bare

numbers of division; second, a word problem in the English version; and lastly,

telegraphic in the Filipino version. This study sought to extend Moyer et al.’s (1984)

study, which continues to be the basis of more recent studies (Sanz et al., 2020)

while also looking into the difficulties of the sketched format.

The Semantic Model

The Greeno model (1980), which is the semantic model that is called,

suggests that switching to a telegraphic format could be helpful after the problem

solver has constructed an appropriate schema. This hypothesis is consistent with

Zweng's (1979) finding that presenting a problem in a verbal format improved the

performance of high-ability students, and continues to form the basis of more current

studies (e.g., Sanz et al., 2020).

The Advantages of a Drawn Format

Drawings and diagrams enhance performance on mathematics tests. Gagne

and White (1978) concluded that "the manner of integration of images with verbal

passages is still a matter that deserves further research". In one study, Threadgill and

Sowder (1982) found that a drawn format was superior to a verbal format for fifth

graders.

Supporting Arguments

There are four arguments in support of the hypothesis that presenting

narrative issues in a drawn-out style increases problem-solving ability. First, using a

drawn version of story problems can help students cope with reading-related working

memory overload. Unlike the telegraphic format, a drawn format omits superfluous

verbal material while providing contextual cues. Drawings may resemble problem

situations students confront in stores, catalogs, and newspaper ads.

Second, the increased vividness of a drawn style can aid students in recalling

similar instances from the past, allowing them to develop an appropriate semantic

representation of the problem. The paradigm proposed by Gagne and White (1978)

for connecting learning outcomes to memory proposes four types of long-term

memory structures: networks of propositions, pictures, events, and intellectual talents.

A drawing-based challenge may motivate learners to generate or recall relevant

visuals, which may then be related directly or indirectly (through propositional or

episodic memory) to appropriate mental skills.

Third, drawing pictures accompanied by telegraphic phrases can help

students link the meanings of the phrases (propositions) with the drawing (image).

The presentation of both may induce more involvement on the part of the problem

solver, an internal check on the interpreted meaning of the situation, and the

relationship between the image memory structures and propositional memory

structures. Many educators have stressed the important role that understanding the

problem plays in problem solving (Charles & Lester, 1984; Polya, 1957).

Making a sketch is the fourth most generally recommended problem-solving

approach. Drawings are seen as important supplemental information by students her.

Students who sketch are more likely to succeed in addressing primary story issues

(Zweng, 1979). A drawn format can aid in the selection of an acceptable schema as

well as the retrieval of data for input into an operation.

Division Word Problems

It is generally simpler in education to make adjustments in learning or

instruction than it is to obtain information on what caused such changes. This is the

critical distinction between the design and scientific parts of design research.

According to Ullman's (1992) traditional perspective on design, goods change through

a constant comparison of the design state and the desired function.

Middleton et al. (2002) investigated the development of modular curriculum

resources related to Mathematics (Lappan et al., 2002; Romberg, 2000). These

curricula are designed to be adaptable, allowing school districts and instructors to

change the sequence in which booklets are used and to select activities and tools

that allow them to perform the necessary purpose. Teachers and school employees

are still not routinely incorporated into product creation from the start.

The "classic" research model or cyclic research sequence promoted by

advocates of scientific research, in education typically comprises four phases. The

first phase often (although not always) establishes the research problem or

pedagogic issue that is to be addressed. Once a clear and researchable hypothesis

has been established, the second phase of developing a testable artifact or

intervention can begin. The third phase of the scientific research sequence is to

undertake a trial or intervention that will be able to isolate the systematic effects and

begin to identify associated causal relationships. This is often the most creative

phase, where pedagogic experience can be of immense value. For scientific inquiry

to continue, the resulting artifact and/or design of instructional sequences have to be

testable against predetermined criteria such as pupil assessment, speed of delivery,

pupil satisfaction, etc. The aim of a pedagogic system or instrument is to implement a

"successful" system or pedagogy more widely. The final phase of research should

ensure that the results are transportable to other contexts and can contribute to

further theoretical developments.

Children are prone to devising cost-effective methods of dividing wholes and

cutting fewer parts. They are taught various techniques for equitable sharing (Pothier

& Sawada, 1983; Lamon, 1999; Streefland, 1991). Charles and Nason (2000) argued

that three conditions must be met for children to understand the concept as a general

concept. These conditions include the construction of conceptual mapping through

partitioning strategies for initiating equal and quantifiable shares, and specific

modeling from the number of subjects to the unit fraction name of each share. It is

demonstrated that economically efficient models of fractions are difficult for

youngsters to grasp. They found that youngsters struggle to recognize the link

between fractions and the division operation that represents equal sharing. The

researchers used little whole numbers ranging from 1 to 6 to study the phenomenon.

According to Toluk (1999), young people do not consider equal sharing

scenarios with fraction results to be difficult to divide. They begin with two distinct and

concurrent conceptions of fairly sharing concerns. Toluk, on the other hand, observed

that children use contextual contexts to provide meaning to symbolically depicted

situations more frequently. Because children were not required to choose between

sharing and classifying things, shared objects might be grouped if imagined at a

higher level of categorization (e.g., red markers and blue markers are both markers),

and children dealt with both. Second, rather of treating the whole number component

of the quotient as a single number, they maintained it as a mixed number.

Fractions can be interpreted in five ways: as a part-whole relationship, as a

measurement, as a quotient, as a ratio, or as an operator (Behr, et al., 1983; Kieren,

1976; Lamon, 1999; Ohlsson, 1988). In division situations, the sign a/b signifies the

quotient when a whole integer a is divided by b. For many pupils, this makes fractions

and quotients more difficult to understand. This awareness may be taught to children

through a specific training sequence. They gradually develop this schema and grasp

the concept of division as a number (Middleton & Mitchell, 2001; Toluk, 1999).

The second challenge involves a similar split of groups. The three types of division

issues are comparable group challenges. Those are numerical or multiplicative

comparator questions and Cartesian product challenges (Ohlsson, 1988; Ohlsson,

1999; Carpenter et al., 1999). There are two forms of equivalent group issues.

Partitive and quotitive divisions. Partitive division is the method of splitting a

quantity into equal parts. Partitive division determines the quantity of items in the

group, hence calculating the size of every group. A quotative division is derived from

the concept of measurement; it inquires as to how many groups a given number of

items can form, as well as how many repetitions the separated component is inserted

in the whole. For example, each division difficulty in the equation 3+5=15 can be

worded as follows partitive division; Megan split 15 cupcakes into 5 bags with the

same number of cupcakes. What is the number of cupcakes in each bag in the quote

section? Megan has 15 cupcakes. She stuffs three cupcakes into each bag. It is a

matter of quotations how many bags she will be able to fill. Megan split five cupcakes

into fifteen bags, each containing an equal number of cupcakes. What is the number

of cupcakes in each bag in the quote section? Megan has five cupcakes. She packs a

total of fifteen bags. How many cupcakes will she be capable of filling?
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Concrete-Representational-Abstract Approach

According to Flores et al. (2014), CRA has a significant impact on students'

ability to solve arithmetic problems since it is a systematic, methodical strategy that

must be taught sequentially. This strategy is often utilized and suitable for elementary

school pupils to assist them in comprehending and solving arithmetic issues. The

ability to carry out a sequence of mathematical processes to solve a problem is

referred to as procedural knowledge. The CRA sequence of instructions serves as

the basis for fulfilling the National Mathematics Advisory Council's goals and the

Pennsylvania academic standards in order to equip students for success in the

mathematics classroom.

Bruner and Kenney (1965) said that to improve children's arithmetic abilities,

the instructional sequence technique would be used. Because it has a three-stage

learning method, students must first learn by manipulating actual physical objects,

followed by graphical representations of the abstract notation, to solve a problem.

According to Flores et al. (2014), a concrete-representational-abstract

instructional strategy would be employed to successfully teach mathematical issues.

It is made up of three steps that students must master in math classes. The first

phase is the "concrete stage," which is "doing," followed by the "representational

stage," which is "seeing," and finally the "abstract stage," which is "symbolic" to solve

mathematical problems.

CRA may be used at all grade levels, individually, in small groups, or for the

entire class, according to Miller and Kennedy (2012). It may be utilized with primary or

secondary school students. When utilizing CRA, the teacher should give several
 17

chances for pupils to practice and demonstrate their understanding of the

mathematical subject. The presentation of the numerical issue should be included in

explicit teaching that includes the use of manipulatives. Students are provided the

opportunity to practice the mathematical model and employ verbalization while

utilizing the CRA sequence after many instructor examples.

Based on the study of Butler et al. (2003), these insufficiencies become even

more critical with the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) charge to

focus on conceptual understanding and problem solving rather than rule-driven

knowledge. CRA methods can assist students in bridging the conceptual-to-

operational procedure gap. Here are some examples of CRA activities that can be

effectively used for word problems in elementary.

C-R-A for Division Situation

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
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Pre-Test Post-Test

a. Bare Division
RA a. Bare Division
Number Tasks
Number Tasks
b. Word Problem in
b. Word Problem in
English
Intervention
English
c. Problem in drawn
c. Problem in drawn
format in Filipino
format in Filipino

Figure 1 A schematic diagram shows how to compare the pre-test and post-test on
the effect of the representational-abstract approach on division word problem
solving performance through teaching intervention among Grade 6 students.