NEUROSCIENCE COURSE

MODULE 6
Module 6 :
EXPRESSION AND PERCEPTION OF EMOTIONS
They are annoyed, in a good mood, angry, happy, miserable, sad, confused, surprised, lost…
Generally, we do not need to talk to someone to know what state of mind they are in. Some people
can read the feelings and emotions of those around them perfectly, whereas others can only do so if
they are guided.
The same is true for facial expressions. Some people let everything show on their face, whereas
others seem completely insensitive to what is happening around them. Expressing and decoding
emotions are just as complex as learning a language.
Emotion theorists generally recognize a certain number of common characteristics: emotions are
intentional, they are directed towards objects in one’s environment (including oneself). However, is
this phenomenological description supported by scientific studies and philosophical analysis of
expression of emotions?
What makes something an expression of emotion and how is such expression linked to other aspects
of psychology and human behavior? A popular belief is that expression of emotion serves to
communicate the emotional state of the person expressing it. Indeed, the facial expression of an
emotion is often considered as the paradigmatic case in which other people’s psychological states
are manifested to us.
Upon closer examination, we realize that emotions are at once a form of language and memory. We
refer to them as language because they convey sensations that we cannot (or perhaps do not want
to) communicate. Emotions are a form of memory because they arise based on emotions previously
experienced.
When watching a romantic comedy, for example, some people will have tears in their eyes, but not
necessarily for the same reasons. Some will feel positive emotions because they remember romantic
moments they have experienced themselves. Others will cry tears of sadness because the events
described in the film will remind them of moments spent with a partner who has died or who left
them.
Thus, emotions are not static. When faced with the same event, one group might laugh until they
cry, another might burst into tears, and another might have a panic attack. These inexplicable
differences lead us to ask several questions: what are emotions? Where do they originate from? And
what makes us react and why?

The origin and psychophysiology of emotions

Before we consider the origin of emotions, we need to define what they are. However, this is possibly
the most difficult task of all. Many researchers agree that it is impossible not only to characterize
them, but also to determine their origin. The reason for this is simple: emotions result from several
factors and are always unique.
“In the beginning was emotion”, Louis Ferdinand Céline wrote. This extremely simplistic statement is
nevertheless true. Our modern life and everything we currently possess depend solely on emotions.
The need to speak, draw, communicate and construct the world as it is: all of these are born out of
emotions.

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Feeling sadness at not being able to feed one’s children or rage at having to fight to get more in order
to arouse feelings of fear, respect or love in others: everything we do, from the first day of life until
our last breath, rests solely on emotions.
Everyone perceives emotions in their own way and has their own vision of the world, but the
existence of every human being is controlled by their emotions. This is why it is so difficult to define
this term. However, researchers have managed to agree on one basic principle: that emotion is
always subjective!
 Rediscovery of emotions
After having occupied an important position in philosophy and medicine in Antiquity and the Middle
Ages, interest in emotions and their impacts on how humans function gradually declined. From the
19th century onwards, many scientists perceived the human body as nothing more than a machine, a
synchronized device that could be adjusted to the millimeter and that was therefore controllable.
At the time, it was believed that humans were able to control their emotions and ignore their
impulses and urges. Thus, only weak beings allowed themselves to get carried away by these. It was
not until the mid-20th century that there was a strong revival of interest in emotions and their place
in everyday life. However, the first cognitive theories concerning emotions did not emerge until the
early 1980s.
 From moral deviancy to a natural process: what are emotions today?
The definitions are extremely varied. Thus, emotion could be considered as:
a spontaneous and very often uncontrolled reaction of the body to some kind of stimulus. This is
made up of three components : one that is physiological and hidden (which is still described as
the subjective experience component), one that is public (the public behavioral component) and
one that involves cognitive evaluation of stimulations or situations ;
a universal process that is common to the majority of living beings. Humans are not the only
creatures to feel emotions ; animals do too. All animals can feel fear, joy, stress and anger. It is
difficult to say if a goldfish is happy, but its stress and fear are relatively visible if you are used to
observing it. Nowadays, only primary emotions are scientifically considered to be emotions; that
is, emotions that are easy for anyone to detect. These are fear, joy, sadness, anger, surprise and
disgust. These emotions are automatic and difficult to control. They are also described as reflex
emotions. More complex emotions are ones we choose whether to feel or not (such as pity,
affection, jealousy and guilt).
Psychologically speaking, emotions are also defined as “constellations of highly intense responses
that comprise typical physiological and subjective expressive manifestations that are usually
accompanied by characteristic patterns of action and take place as a break in continuity in relation
to the process that was ongoing in the subject when they surfaced”.
For over a century, the connection between emotional states and psychophysiological activity has
been at the heart of the study of behavior. For decades, theorists have debated the psychophysiology
of human emotions, focusing on several questions in the process. Physiological responses to
emotional stimuli were mainly relevant to psychology. However, emotions have recently attracted

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attention in other scientific domains, such as neuroscience, product development and experience
design, and IT.

Origin of emotions

From a purely psychological perspective, emotions are spontaneous. As such, it would be difficult to
determine their origin. There is no quintessential stimulus because what will cause one person to feel
contempt could cause another to laugh. Thus, whether or not an emotion arises will depend on the
education the subject has received, their sociocultural environment and their personal preferences.
Nevertheless, emotions do have a physiological origin. They develop in the limbic system and the
orbitofrontal cortex.

 Limbic system
The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information. The amygdala attributes emotional
valence to each stimulus and triggers the emotional reaction. The hypothalamus deals with the
physiological response to each stimulus, as well as the regulation of the different bodily functions.
These primarily include eating, sleeping and heat regulation. The hippocampus is responsible for
memorization, and the basal ganglia control movements.

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The diagram below describes how the amygdala manages emotions.

 Orbitofrontal cortex
Scientists are not always able to provide a detailed explanation of the different functions of this area
of the brain. Many functions remain unknown, but overall, the orbitofrontal cortex controls and
manages emotions. The activations in this area correlate with the subjective emotional experience
of affective stimuli. Damage or injury impair learning linked to emotions, emotional behavior and the
subjective emotional state.
People with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex can also be less sensitive to rewards, as shown by
their reduced subjective emotional feelings, their impaired social and emotional behavior and their
difficulties processing facial expressions and the expression in people’s voices.
To understand the functions of this area, it is useful to dwell on the effects caused by damage to the
orbitofrontal cortex. The symptoms observed in each individual case include:
vulgar language (unjustified);
a complete lack of empathy which causes issues with socialization;
uncontrolled sexual behavior (hypersexuality);
dependency issues (drugs, alcohol, etc.);
unjustified development of criminal behavior.

Importance of emotions
What is the importance of emotions? Socialization is impossible without emotions. Furthermore,
some emotions, such as fear and stress, are vital and can save lives. Some reactions (for example

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fleeing in the event of danger) are only possible if the individual initially feels a sense of fear when
faced with a danger or a threatening situation. Emotions are important in the sense that they make
it possible to analyze and study the reactions to adopt when faced with a concrete event.
The ability to express, read, understand and identify emotions is known as ‘emotional intelligence’.
It refers to the ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions, as well as those of others.
Generally, emotional intelligence is said to encompass certain skills:
emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one’s own emotions;
the ability to exploit these emotions and apply them to tasks like reflection and problem solving;
the ability to manage one’s emotions, which involves both regulating one’s own emotions if
necessary and helping others to do the same.
 Example
An individual finds themselves in a building that is engulfed in flames. They know they are in danger
and are aware of the fact they could die, but for some incomprehensible reason, they do not hurry to
leave the building. They might stay where they are to finish a task they consider to be important or
help other people, but not deem it necessary to leave, themselves.
This individual might seem courageous to those around them. However, if they are incapable of
feeling an emotion of true fear, it is not impossible that they will end up dying in this fire.
Indeed, the body’s reactions are closely linked to the emotions felt. The inability to perceive these
sensations prevents the body from making decisions that sometimes prove vital. To return to the
previous example, the individual will not try to escape, even if the danger is immense. As they are
unable to appreciate the true extent of the danger, they will also not be able to make the decisions
that are required in an emergency.
A large part of learning that takes place in childhood, and even in adulthood, rests solely on the
emotions felt. We learn to be afraid of dangers, out of fear of putting our life at risk unnecessarily.
We learn to reach out to others and socialize to feel the pleasure of being together. We also learn to
understand the people who make up our immediate circle. Being able to decipher emotions
facilitates integration into the group. In fact, understanding emotions represents the first means of
communication.
At birth, children mainly pay attention to the faces of those around them and, from the end of the
first month, they are able to recognize a few basic emotions. At the age of 3 months, they are not
only able to decode emotions, but also reproduce them. They start to smile, and even laugh. From
the age of 5 months, real interaction can be observed. Children are no longer content to only read or
express their own emotions; they now react to those of the people around them.
A study conducted by Ross Flom on a group of babies aged from 3.5 to 5 months showed that the
oldest children tended to laugh when shown a smiling face, even if they hear crying in the
background. At the same time, if they see a sad face, the baby will be inclined to cry, even if they
hear laughter in the background.

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Ways of expressing emotions

Despite being expressed in a reflective manner; emotions are not innate. As previously mentioned,
children gradually learn to recognize and copy them. The way children express emotions is therefore
closely linked to the social environment in which they grow up. This means that the ways adults
express emotions mimic the models assimilated in childhood and adolescence.
This does not mean that the expression of emotions remains static; far from it. It evolves considerably
with time. Only one value remains unchanged: the sociocultural environment. At every age, it
conditions the individual’s reaction. As such, it would probably be appropriate to deal with this
subject by studying techniques that aim to teach individuals (whether children or adults) to express
these emotions.
 Understanding and decoding the world around us
Let’s begin by asking two questions that are disturbing and somewhat unhealthy, or that would at
least be perceived as such by the majority of people:
What would you feel if you watched a human being decapitated: anger, sadness, desperation,
joy?
How would you react if, upon entering a room, you found a human head on the table? Would you
be surprised? Sad? Scared?
For most people, these two questions will arouse feelings of anger, sadness and fear all at once. The
anger comes from the fact that a human life is being treated so lightly. The feeling of sadness comes
from the sense of compassion towards the individual who was decapitated or who saw the head. The
sense of fear comes from the fact that we would be afraid to find ourselves in the same situation as
this unfortunate individual.
These three basic emotions will give rise in turn to a host of other negative emotions. The diagram
below offers a schematic representation of the hierarchy of emotions.

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Is it possible to have a positive reaction to seeing a decapitated human head? Is it possible to feel
absolutely no emotion, whether positive or negative? Can we consider that people who remain
unmoved by this kind of act or scene are criminals or psychopaths?
Most people would answer the first two questions with an unequivocal “no”, but the same cannot
be said for the last question, the automatic answer to which will be yes. However, this is only because
most people do not consider the context. The first question about the decapitation was provocative
and automatically results in errors.
The first error is to think that the person being decapitated is alive. The second is to believe that the
person decapitating them is doing it out of hatred or contempt for them. The third is to think that
the head seen in the room is that of the person whose decapitation was mentioned.
Here’s another question: what image appeared in your mind when you read the first two questions?
It seems unnecessary to explain. We live in a world where we feel under permanent threat from
terrorism. Everyone who reads those questions will therefore imagine the worst: a poor individual
caught by terrorists and whose life is soon to come to an end. Worse still, these terrorists take
pleasure from displaying the dead person’s head in a room.
Let’s return to the first two questions, but this time provide the context. If we explain that the
decapitation in question is taking place in a laboratory, on the body of a person who chose to leave
their body to science, two emotions will immediately disappear: fear and anger.
If we add that the head placed on the table is being studied closely by a group of doctors who are
trying to understand how to operate effectively on a dying child, the feeling of sadness will also
disappear. Whatever operations and actions are carried out on this head will be completely justified
by the objective to be achieved and will not arouse any negative emotion.
This does not categorically mean that all the individuals witnessing this scene will be able to bear it.
Intuitively, most will feel a certain degree of anxiety along with a deep sense of melancholy. However,
they will justify the experience—and also modify their emotions—due to the fact that it is an obvious
necessity. Health professionals themselves would look at it in an even more philosophical way than
anyone else.
Although this example is harsh and extremely violent, it shows that a second, equally important factor
is linked to how emotions are expressed: the surrounding context.

Cognition and emotions

Is expression of emotions conditioned by the cognitive faculties? It is difficult to find another question
that agitates psychologists so much. Everyone agrees that it would not be possible to have emotions
without cognitive faculties, but the question is which of the two notions causes the other.
Some people would not be able to feel emotions without using their cognitive faculties. For others,
it is their emotions that have led to the development of their cognitive faculties.
At present, we distinguish three main schools of thought:
The cognitivist school (Mandel, Scherer, Lazarus, Leventhal, Frijda, Kirouac). This places cognitive
processes before emotional reactions. Frijda believed that emotions are the obligatory result of

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cognitive processes. As such, the disappearance of the former will automatically lead to that of
the latter.
The emotional school (Zajonc, Izard, Tomkins, Green). Their vision can be summed up by the
aforementioned quotation from Céline, that “In the beginning was emotion”. Zajonc believed
that, despite being closely linked, the affective and cognitive processes remain completely
independent from each other. Upon examining the two categories of reactions closely, we notice
that:
❖ emotional reactions intervene more quickly than cognitive reactions;
❖ emotional reactions have a more significant impact overall on the development of the
individual in particular and the species in general;
❖ emotional reactions are automatic and independent of the individual’s will. As a result, the
cognitive functions cannot intervene in the formation of emotions.
The combined school (Cowan, Lewis, Michaelson, Gordon, Scott, Denzin, Hoschild, Kemper). This
is based on one simple principle: it is in fact impossible to separate emotional and cognitive
reactions because the two are in permanent interaction.
Is it necessary to choose one particular school over the others? Not really! Each of them is reasonable
and logical in their own way.

Formation of personality and expression of

emotions
Expression of emotions is also dependent on another factor: the personality of the person expressing
them. We react in a positive or negative manner based on what we deem to be positive or negative.
We have to recognize that the crowd sometimes plays a significant role in this decision.
On a daily basis, however, emotions are both common and unique to every individual, and this
judgement varies based on the environment, the context or even the individual’s personality, as well
as their age.
Here are some examples of actions:
tearing paper;
moving the hands like puppets;
walking on tiptoe;
humming;
opening and closing the eyes;
yawning.
These actions would leave virtually all adults a little perplexed. The same would be true for
adolescents and older children, but things are different with babies. The list above mentions certain

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activities that cause children aged 0 to 6 months to laugh. Expression of emotions evolves with time,
and it is up to the people around the child to teach it to decode and express these emotions.
This development can take place through exercises, taking into consideration the evolution of the
child’s personality.

Exercise
This exercise aims to help the child manage their emotions and deal with those of others around them.
 Objectives
The objectives of the exercise are as follows:
To identify the sources of pleasant and unpleasant emotions using the sense organs.
To decode the different emotions.
To study the notion of danger and its emotional expression.
To learn to decode the different emotions in individuals and react to them appropriately.
To learn to express one’s emotions oneself.
 Elements to take into consideration
At birth, children are overwhelmed by the emotions around them. Gradually, they begin to build their
own world, slowly associating the world of signs and that of things.
The development of these processes begins with language (not necessarily oral), then they form their
personality in parallel to the influences to which they are subjected. This gradual evolution contributes
towards forming a sense of individuality. The formation of personality occurs in several stages:
From birth to the age of 6 months, children are not aware of their personality. They know they
are alive, but they do not yet consider themselves a human being in their own right. When placed
in front of a mirror, a child of this age will not recognize itself, it also does not understand the
reflection it sees. It thinks it is just an image.
From the age of 6 months, children start to attach importance to the reflection in the mirror.
However, they still cannot decipher that this image is their own. This period lasts until the age of
8 months.
From the age of 8 months, children realize that the image in the mirror is not just a drawing or
moving image. They realize that it is a real human with which they can interact. Nevertheless,
they still do not realize that it is them.
From the age of one, the child finally becomes aware of the person and its body and realizes that
the image in the mirror is its own. However, it is not until the age of six that children become fully
aware of themselves.
Three elements make up a person’s individuality:
Thoughts: these are forms of interpretation of the individual themselves and their
environment/those around them. They are closely linked to the individual’s abilities.

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Emotions: these are involuntary sensations and automatic reactions to the influences of the
environment.
Behavior: this is the result of the first two factors.
Emotions are classed into two categories:
Affects, which are the emotional sensations themselves: anger, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, etc.
Psychological sensations: these are the physical signals emitted by the body in response to an
affect. They include increased heart rate when someone is afraid.
 Prerequisites for the session
The instructor will need to address the notion of the senses and the five sense organs. They can ask
the children to bring a photo, picture or other tool that instils positive emotions.
The instructor can make the children become aware of their relaxed body and what they are feeling
at that moment. An activity can also be done in the class on the vocabulary to refer to the different
emotions (the main six that will be focused on are joy, fear, anger, sadness, surprise and shame. For
each emotion, there is a wide range of related words that suggest a stronger or weaker intensity).
 Tools
The tools selected must awaken the sense organs. Through sensory experiences, they suggest a shift
towards a more symbolized graphic representation (images, recordings, displays, etc.) when possible:
a photograph of the present happy situation and/or a drawing of the object brought;
a set of drawings;
a set of labels for the different emotions (fear, surprise, anger, joy, sadness, shame);
a DVD of noises and different vocal intonations (whispering, loud, shouting);
different fabrics, food items, scents;
a traditional tale (Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Little Pigs).
 First activity
This involves making the child understand that perception of the senses and emotions is not the same
for everyone. By addressing the notions of what is pleasant and unpleasant, the instructor needs to
get the child to understand that what it finds pleasant will not necessarily produce the same
sensations in its neighbor, friend or parent.
To help the child to differentiate the two concepts, it is important to focus on touch. This is not because
touch is the only appropriate sense organ, but because it makes it easier to explain. The instructor can
touch the child with different objects and ask it to express the sensations it feels. They can ask them,
for example, to put their hands in cold water, then some warm water. They can run their hand along
a feather, then along a rough object. With regard to the other sense organs, taste (sweet, salty, bitter,
acidic) and sight (nice, not nice) will be used.
Overall, this is an exercise about differentiation and appreciation.

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 Second activity
Here, the aim is to introduce the child to reading emotions expressed facially. They will be taught to
decode the emotions they see on a real face or an image. On the back of each image will be a
corresponding label to help the child to keep track of each one easily. If they are decoding the
emotions shown on a face in person, the instructor will need to explain to them (if they do not get the
answer right) which emotion was correct.
 Third activity
Here, the instructor encourages the child to express their emotions in relation to the situations
experienced. For example, they might be shown an image of themselves in several different situations
and asked to share their emotions relating to it. In some cases, the child will be able to show initiative.
In other cases, the instructor’s assistance will be useful. They might suggest detecting emotions by
telling the child a story. The child will need to identify the passages that made them sad, happy or
scared.
This exercise can also be adapted to meet the needs of adults or adolescents.

Individual differences in ways of expressing

emotions
It would not be possible to tackle this theme without going back over a few basic concepts. What are
the foundations for the expression of emotions? The first is the sociocultural environment in which
the child grows up. The second is the individual’s own personality. Then a third factor comes into
consideration: sex. It would be tempting to class this in the same category as sociocultural
environment, but this would be a mistake.
Does a smile always reflect joy or happiness? Generally, but not in Asian societies. In Japan, for
example, a smile very often expresses embarrassment. When someone feels averse to the behavior
displayed or question asked by their interlocutor, they smile. As a result, a Westerner will have
difficulty interpreting certain expressions correctly when speaking to a Japanese person, and will risk
offending them without realizing.
Staying with this same context, it is interesting to note that although the majority of Japanese people
smile when they feel embarrassed, they will not necessarily all react in the same way. However, the
inhabitants of one region or country are more able to accurately interpret their counterparts’
emotions.
What role does sex play? At first sight, it does not. It is important to recognize that some of the
differences relating to sex come about as a result of education. Let’s consider a few commonly heard
remarks: “Why are you crying like a little girl?”, “Stop sniveling, boys don’t cry”, “Control your
emotions, you’re not a girl” and “I need a man, not a woman who cries all the time”. We hear
comments like these every day without even paying attention to them, and yet they hold a lot of
meaning.
For thousands of years, we have expected men to be strong and to ignore or at least control their
fear. Men are not allowed to cry, even if they are sad. Men are the protectors in the family. They are

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not allowed to wallow in despair or show signs of sorrow or anxiety; only women and children are
permitted to do this. Even here, boys are expected to learn to conceal their emotions once they reach
a certain age.
Until the early 20th century, in almost all societies around the world, women received less education
than men. From birth, they were prepared to fulfil what was considered their primary function: to be
a wife and mother. They learnt to sew, sing, play a musical instrument, paint, cook and write poems.
That was all. Meanwhile, boys were educated in exact sciences, literature, philosophy, natural
sciences and many other subjects.
This approach that was followed for thousands of years ended up creating clear differences between
how men and women perceive and express emotions. Women are more attentive and decode
emotions better than men. They also display better control over their emotions.

Emotional development
The differences can only be understood by studying the different stages of emotional development.
Harris, Pons and Doudin believe that emotional development takes place in three main stages, which
are each divided into nine phases.
 First stage
This begins at the age of 2 and finishes around the age of 5. During this period, the child gradually
learns to understand basic emotions. They then move on to classifying more complex emotions. This
involves, for example, being able to distinguish shame from guilt or pride from sudden joy.
From the age of 3, or 3.5 years for some, children establish cause-and-effect relationships between
events and emotional reactions. For example, bad news will lead to sadness or anger. From the age
of 4 or 4.5 years (or in some cases 5 years), children become aware of the fact that memories can
also provoke emotions. Remembering how a parent refused to buy the toy they desperately wanted
will cause a feeling of sadness.
 Second stage
This begins at the age of 4 to 5 years and finishes at 8 to 9 years. Just like the previous stage, it is
divided into three sub-classes. From 4 to 5 years, to 6 to 7 years, children become aware of the impact
of desires. They finally realize that, even if two human beings experience identical emotions, they
may adopt different attitudes based on their desires.
From the age of 6 to 7 years, they learn to appreciate the role played by knowledge or beliefs in
relation to emotions (for example, thinking one has lost something causes a feeling of sadness).
Children are able to distinguish between the appearance and reality of an emotion (for example,
feigning or hiding an emotion). The third stage can be considered an extension of this learning
process.
 Third stage
This begins at the age of 8 to 9 years and lasts until 11 to 12 years. This prepubescent stage is
particularly complex. At the beginning (8 to 9 years), the child starts to accept the emotional

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repercussions of its actions (for example, feeling proud after having done something praiseworthy,
or feeling embarrassed after making a mistake).
The next phase (9 to 10 years) is where the child becomes aware of the fact that it is able to feel two
completely contradictory emotions. At the age of 11 to 12 years, it finally takes full control of its
emotions. It is now able to get itself out of a difficult emotional state by drawing on positive
memories.

The notion of emotional capital

Gendron defines this concept as “the set of emotional competencies that constitutes a resource
inherent to the person that is useful for personal, professional and organizational development, that
contributes towards social cohesion and has personal, economic impacts”.
This concept takes conative and cognitive aspects into consideration. Emotional capital is not a given.
Aptitudes are acquired over time and the subject needs to hone them. Thus, emotional capital will
only develop if the individual’s sociocultural environment is conducive to it.
Emotional capital is not a static principle. It varies with the individual and based on their perception
of this capital. Good emotional management increases the potential for emotional capital. In some
domains, like education or marketing, excellent mastery of emotional capital is vital. It is important
to note that emotional capital can also have a negative or even damaging impact on individuals’
health.
Studies conducted by Izard and Abe in the late 1990s showed that children who constantly suffer
from negative emotions (humiliation, threats, contempt, etc.) develop a feeling of discomfort that
increases the sensation of unease. This in turn can have consequences on the individual’s physical
state.
As such, children should be surrounded by positive emotions as much as possible from infancy to
adolescence. In practice, this means that the people around them need to support and encourage
them and motivate them to see the positive side of any problems they face.
It is probably due to the importance of these positive influences that specialists like Ottavia Albanese
and Ilaria Grazzani Gavazzi have given the following definition of emotional capital: “Positive
experience and the emotions that result from it can represent a protective factor because they help
to boost the mood by predisposing the subject to taking creative action and because they constitute
a form of reserve that can be used in critical moments, a resource to help tackle negative situations.”
Gendron follows the same logic, emphasizing its importance for good psychological and physical
development. She also adds that “the absence of emotional capital in a student can be responsible
for imbalances and tensions and constitute a weakness that disrupts learning […]”.
The teaching of emotional faculties helps children not only to control their emotions, but also to
socialize without difficulty.
 The crucial importance of developing emotional intelligence in children
Children of today are the adults of tomorrow. Many violent or desperate acts could have been
avoided if the adults who committed them had received good emotional support during childhood.

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How does a good emotional balance contribute towards normal development? The answer is simple:
it offers the child the opportunity to understand themselves. The better grasp they have of their own
personality, the easier they will find it to understand those of others. From a very early age, children
need to be able to:
understand and accept their emotions;
get a precise idea of their own needs and learn to defend their interests;
not fear their emotions and not be afraid to express them, whatever they may be;
not be afraid to use their imagination;
not deny their own personality in order to be liked by those around them;
express their fantasies without fear.
To summarize, children need to be able to accept their own personality without fearing how others
may judge them, regardless of the situation they are in. By acquiring this independence as quickly as
possible, they will be able to establish and construct healthy relationships with those around them.
The importance of this balance is seen primarily throughout children’s time at school. Children who
constantly need support in order to make progress can prove to be a real nightmare for their teacher.
Indeed, their success is closely linked to external factors. The slightest imbalance will have disastrous
consequences on their ability to learn.
Worse still, these children are afraid to take risks because they fear doing the ‘wrong thing’ or getting
told off if they make a mistake more than anything. This constant fear of failure prevents them from
thinking outside the box and ends up turning them into fragile individuals who lack self-confidence.
As time passes and they get older, the situation will only get worse.
 How to improve emotional potential
We have a duty to support children in all circumstances. However, this support must not be blind or
unconditional. Children can only learn to control their impulses and emotions if they become aware
not only of their own limits, but also of those they need to maintain with the people around them.
This means that parents and teachers need to provide assistance and support to children as long as
they respect social rules, and withdraw them when they deviate from them. Children must realise
that respect for themselves depends on that of others. To achieve this, they must learn not only to
express their emotions, but also to read and analyze those of their interlocutors.
 Analyzing differences
For the moment, we will not dwell on differences that result from children’s sociocultural
environment or education and instead limit our attention to differences due to sex. As previously
mentioned, social differences between the two sexes exist in all societies around the world.
Over time, these have had repercussions on the emotional behavior or both sexes. Nowadays, many
things have changed. However, even if girls are no longer as disadvantaged in relation to boys as they
were in the past, we still note emotional divergences between the sexes.
Studies conducted on children in French-speaking Switzerland have shown that this emotional
diversity exists from a very early age. The results are noteworthy.

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Case study
The study focuses on a group of children with different backgrounds and sociocultural environments.
The researchers selected a total of 12 children: six boys and six girls. They employed an exploratory
research methodology using interviews, in order to focus on the qualitative aspect over the
quantitative aspect. This explains the low number of participants.
The principle behind the information gathering is relatively simple. It is based on an interview
containing two basic questions: one about joy and the other on anger. First, the children are asked to
describe the moment in their day they considered to be a true moment of joy. Gradually, they are
encouraged to go into detail and share more varied emotions. Then the same is done for anger.
During the experiment, the researchers took care not to interrupt the students and gave them the
opportunity to express themselves freely, and in the finest detail. The results of these analyses were
then classed in several tables.
 Emotion: joy
Table 1: Situations that gave rise to joy in participants

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 […] when I was outside with my friends, and I was playing hide and seek. Playing; friends

2 […] When I’m good. […] I do my worksheets […] I do it on my own. Good; on my own

3 […] when we can do drawing […] at break […] when I break the rules […] Break; activities
I can do something else […] with others.

4 […] played with A, C and E. Playing

5 At break and then at the youth club […] I like it […] because we do work Break; youth club
[…] and then at break I play with my little cousin […] be with my Playing; being with
classmates. others

6 When no one hates me, when no one annoys me, when people play with Not being
me […] with C, M and C. disturbed; playing

Boys Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Yes. […] When I’m working […] when it’s just, well, I’m happy. […] I’m Doing good work;
with someone […] At break […] playing with someone. being with
someone; break;
playing

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2 Yes. Well, when I’m doing drawing […] crafts […] when I’m playing […] Drawing; crafts;
With D, he’s my friend. playing; being with
a friend

3 Yes. […] I’m very happy when the homework is easy-peasy. Easy homework

4 Yes. When I’m playing […] with I and C. Playing with

classmates

5 Yes. When I’m playing with D. When I’m with D. Playing and being
with a particular
person

6 […] Yes. Every day. […] homework, when I’m reading, drawing. Doing homework;
reading; drawing

Both girls and boys enjoy moments of play and entertainment. However, the latter experience greater
pleasure in these moments if they are in the company of their friends and classmates. Girls appreciate
the process of play for what it is, regardless of whether they are in a group or not.
Breaktime is also a moment that both sexes enjoy. They feel happy and enjoy all the activities that
take place during this time. However, one factor for happiness is not shared by all children: academic
success. For girls, this is an event like any other; it is not devoid of importance, but they do not consider
it to be of paramount importance. Boys, on the other hand, take sincere, immense pleasure in being
the best; academic success gives them unparalleled satisfaction.
Table 2: Reasons for joy

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Because I was playing hide and seek and they hadn’t found me, it was Playing; funny;
so funny. […] I saved the gang. winning

2 Because I had learnt something. Learning

3 […] because I break the rules […] because there are lots of times when I Breaking the rules;
can do something […] Because sometimes we can fool around at break. activities; fooling
around

4 […] Because mum let me. Permission to play

with friends

5 […] Because we do work and I like doing work […] because I like school Working; playing
a lot, we do a lot of work, we do a lot of things […] we play.

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6 Because I like it when someone plays with me, and I like it when no one Playing; not being
disturbs me or hits me. disturbed

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 Because it means I’m not on my own. Being with

someone

2 Because I like doing cr… I like crafts. Crafts

3 Because I finish and put my hand up. Finishing work

4 […] I play. Playing

5 Because I go to school […] actually I’m with D, and I’m with him in class Going to school;
too. being with
classmates

6 When I do my homework […] do tests. Doing homework

and tests

Overall, all the children feel comfortable at school and they enjoy carrying out all the tasks given to
them. The interesting activities were common to both sexes, but girls were the only ones to mention
the following concepts: laughing, winning, breaking rules, fooling around, not being disturbed and
getting permission to do something special.
Table 3: Perception of joy and sensations experienced when it arises

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 […] it’s something that makes people happy […] When I’m not feeling Happy; good for
joyful, it’s because we don’t know what to do, we’re not playing, we’re the heart
angry… […] Good for the heart.

2 When we go to Europa-Park. […] Good. Entertainment;

good

3 It’s when I feel happiness […] that means when for example we do Happiness;
something and then afterwards we’re pleased. […] my body feels all pleased; warm
warm.

4 It’s being happy. It’s being pleased, for example when it’s your birthday. Happy; pleased;
[…] You can feel your eyes crying. special occasion;
crying

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5 Joy is not being annoyed […] I feel that I’m thinking of my mum and all Not being annoyed;
my family. thinking about
family

6 Joy is something that’s good, something that’s very important to us. It’s Good; important;
something we won’t forget. […] I’m just happy. unforgettable;
happy

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 I don’t know, it’s difficult to explain. […] good. Difficult to explain;

good

2 […] good. Good

3 Joy is when I have friends and they lend me their Lego and I lend them Friends; sharing
mine, when they lend me new toys and I lend them mine too.

4 […] good. Good

5 […] straight after I just want to play. Wanting to play

6 I don’t know. I’m pleased. Difficult to explain;

pleased

This table helps to understand how children perceive joy. Overall, how do they define this notion and
what do they feel physically and psychologically? The researchers focus on the synonyms that the
children use for “joyful”. For girls, “pleased” and “happy” are most popular. Boys, as paradoxical as it
might seem, rarely use them.
Then comes the expression “good”. Both sexes use it freely. Girls, however, had their own variation of
this, “good for the heart”. The third expression is used frequently by boys but virtually never by girls:
“difficult to explain”.
Table 4: Transmitting the feeling of joy to others and reasons for doing it

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Yes. To C [...] M, D, and E. […] Because I like them. People they like

2 Yes. To the teacher. To the teacher

3 Yes. To my friends. […] who are kind to me. Friends

4 Not really. […] No. Because it’s my secret. Secret

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5 Yes, to my mum and to my family and also my little cousin. […] Because Family; listening
they listen to me and the other people never listen to me.

6 No. […] Because I always forget. Forget to talk about

it

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 No. No

2 Yes […] to D. Friends

3 No. No

4 No. No

5 Um, no. No

6 Yes. […] to E. […] Because he’s my friend. Friends

Overall, the children enjoy sharing their happiness with their friends. However, boys tend to keep their
emotions for themselves. Four of the six boys involved in the experiment did not show them. The
situation is different with girls. They tend to open up to everyone. In addition to their friends, they
also share their joy with those around them (teacher and family). They only rarely keep this emotion
to themselves and, even if this does happen, it is very often because they simply forgot to mention it.
Table 5: Abilities to decode and understand others’ emotions

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Yes. […] Because all they did was laugh. And they played with me. Laughing; playing
with

2 I don’t know. Difficult to notice

3 Yes. […] Because afterwards they’re all red […] Blushing

4 […] because they explained it to me. Explanation

5 Yes. […] Because I saw them playing so much, they were smiling […] Playing; smiling
Then some weren’t happy so after they said that they could play with
someone else and they played with someone.

6 […] sometimes. […] they play with someone and they’re very pleased. Playing; pleased;
[…] He smiles, he’s pleased, sometimes he laughs. smiling; laughing

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

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1 Yes. […] He told me once that, that he felt joyful. Someone told him

2 Yes. […] he feels joyful. […] he’s drawing something. […] Drawing

3 Yes. […] Because I have a face like you […] I don’t know. You can see it;
difficult to notice

4 Yes […] because I can see […] I can see their face. You can see it

5 Um yes, some […] D. A. […] I saw them smile. Smiling

6 Yes […] because they play with me. Playing

The analysis shows that children are generally able to perceive others’ positive emotions. However, a
clear trend can be observed: girls are far more attentive than boys with regard to decoding others’
emotions.
 Emotion: Anger
Table 1: Situations causing anger

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 C had done something silly. […] I knew that the teacher was going to tell Telling off; crying;
her off. […] when M cried, because D had said that, that annoyed me. I annoying; angry
was angry with D.

2 When someone hits me. Being hit

3 […] there are other girls who don’t want to be my friends […] she doesn’t Loneliness
come with me […] I don’t have any friends anymore.

4 […] when someone hits me. Being hit

5 When C annoys me. Being annoyed

6 When C kicks me at break sometimes. Being kicked

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 When I make mistakes and I can’t… Making mistakes

2 With S. […] He went in the bin and took out some dirty bread. […] he Others doing silly
didn’t want to stop. things and being
disobedient

3 […] he called me a little baby. Being insulted

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4 When I annoys me. Being annoyed

5 […] he punches us. Being punched

6 Never. Never

Here, the differences are very clear. Girls are generally angry when they are victims of physical
(getting kicked or hit by their classmates) or psychological violence (threats of all kinds, for example
getting told off). These inconveniences only hurt a small minority of boys. On the other hand, they
become angry when they or others make mistakes. In the same vein, they do not appreciate being
insulted.
Table 2: Reasons for anger

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Because it hurt C’s feelings. Compassion

2 … …

3 […] I’m on my own and I stay by myself. Loneliness

4 Because S hit me and he said Romy Rodgi. Being hit and

insulted

5 Because I don’t like it when people annoy me […]. Being annoyed

6 Because I don’t like it when people do that to me. Having to suffer

something you
don’t like

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 Because I don’t want people to annoy me […] he annoys me all the time. Being annoyed

2 […] he always comes over to me. Being harassed

3 He insulted me […]. Being insulted

4 […] annoys me. Being annoyed

5 […] punches me. Being punched

6 Never. Never

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More than anything, boys hate to be annoyed. Most of the boys complained about this, whereas the
girls did not really seem bothered. However, girls hate to be harassed or insulted, but this sentiment
is shared with boys.
Overall, neither sex appreciates being put under psychological pressure. However, only girls
mentioned that they hate witnessing violence being committed against their friends or acquaintances.
Table 3: Perception of anger and the sensations felt when it arises

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 […] someone who said a nasty word to me, and I’m fed up of him saying Hurt feelings
that and he told the teacher I hit him […] it hurt my feelings.

2 When I’m angry […] I feel sad. Being angry;

sadness

3 […] after you feel angry and sad. […] You have no heart. Being angry; being
sad; no heart

4 When you’re very angry and you don’t like what people are doing and Being angry; being
they wouldn’t like it being done to them […] I feel sad. […] My heart sad/crying; heart
pounds. […] I could cry. pounding

5 […] get annoyed a lot and don’t like people who aren’t nice to us. […] I Getting annoyed;
want to shout, I don’t like it. hating; wanting to
shout

6 […] something I don’t like at all […] I can feel that it will be okay in a Not liking;
little while. reversible emotion

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 […] you don’t feel good […] sadness. Not good; sadness

2 […] hurt […] I’m annoyed […] it hurts […] my stomach. Hurt; annoyed;
stomach pain

3 […] I grabbed him by the neck […] that makes me angry and it hurts Wanting to hit
everywhere. someone; hurting
everywhere

4 […] I hit him. Wanting to hit

someone

5 Angry […] not good at all so I go to my room. Angry; not good;

wanting to be alone

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6 Angry […] nothing. Angry; nothing

special

Here, girls very often tend to associate sadness with anger. They mention feeling a sensation of
discomfort and distress. The third cause of anger that leads to sadness and discomfort is physical pain.
Boys also mention a feeling of discomfort.
The reaction to anger is however different in boys and girls. The former want to punch something,
hurt the person back or be alone. Girls, meanwhile, are inclined to cry, hold a grudge, want to yell
back, or feel physical suffering (for example heart palpitations).
Table 4: Transmitting the feeling of anger to others and reasons for doing it

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 Yes, to C and D. To classmates

2 … …

3 No. […] because then everyone worries. Not wanting to

worry others

4 … …

5 To my mum, my brother and sister. […] because they always listen to Family listen
me.

6 […] I tell the teacher […] she can help me. Person who can
help

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 No. No

2 Um no, otherwise S will know […] I don’t want to […] otherwise he’ll hit Fear of
me. consequences

3 Yes […] D hit me at my parents’ house […] because D lives just next door Family; possibility
to me. of acting

4 Yes, to C and my family. Friends; family

5 No. No

6 … …

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Neither boys nor girls seek to share their anger; the proportions are essentially equal in this case. Only
a minority of the children (two girls and one boy) are ready to do so. Very often, they only share this
emotion when they are forced to. A certain number explain that this refusal is due to wanting to
protect others’ emotional state in order not to make them angry or worried.
Table 5: Ability to decode and understand others’ emotions

Girls Verbatim (translated) Key words/ideas

1 […] I saw them getting angry with each other. […] saying nasty things Getting angry and
to each other. saying nasty things
to each other

2 If someone else hits him. […] When a boy hits the other boy. Hitting

3 […] you can see it. You can recognize

Mimes: puts her fists in front of her face, closes her eyes, frowns and when someone is
closes her mouth. angry

4 […] you can see it. […] if my friend is crying […] she gives me a hug, I Visible; crying;
stroke her head […] she stops straight away. comforting

5 […] they’re not smiling […] when they’re all alone and they’re sulking Not smiling;
[…] I can go and tell them […] that they can play with someone. loneliness; sulking

6 […] the person […] says he annoyed her. […] When their face looks a bit Being annoyed;
like a monster’s. grimace

Boys Verbatim Key words/ideas

1 I can see it on their face. Visible

Mimes: frowns and looks down.

2 […] he’s angry […] he doesn’t give me things to play with […] you can’t Angry; doesn’t let
see it. me borrow things;
can’t see it

3 Because I can see his face (frowns) […] sad […] if someone’s crying […] Visible; sad
if someone hits someone else.

4 I don’t know […] their face and the way they talk. Difficult to know;
visible

5 […] their mouth is upside down and they’re angry and you can see Visible
because they go (angry face).

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6 No. […] some people stamp their feet when they’re angry. […] they Difficult to know;
move. agitation

As with joy, girls and boys are able to decode feelings of anger in others. However, studies show that
girls are much better at doing this. They pay more attention to the facial expressions the individual
displays and the actions they engage in, whereas boys focus much more on the individual’s direct
reactions. Girls, for example, concentrate on reactions like a bad mood, or the fact that the subject is
sulking or wants to be comforted or supported, whereas boys focus on the fact that the subject no
longer wants to share their toys with them or speak to them.
 Results of the study
Overall, the conclusions drawn in this study are the same as what we observe in everyday life: men
and women behave differently in many situations.
First of all, men are less capable of reading and decoding the emotions of those around them correctly.
They also struggle to express their own emotions sometimes. Unlike women, men prefer to hold in
their emotions.
Second, anger and all its related emotions are experienced differently by the sexes. Men immediately
externalize their feelings, or at least have a strong desire to do so. In contrast, women withdraw into
themselves and dwell on the problem.
This difference in approach has consequences on the way the sexes manage and settle these
emotions. The majority of men tend to attack their opponent head-on and tell them what is on their
mind once and for all. Women are more inclined to start rumors to get revenge on the person who
was the cause of their anger.
Lastly, joy and all its related emotions are also perceived in different ways. Although men and women
do not have any difficulty sharing their happiness, women are more likely to do so. In addition, unlike
men, who generally share it with their closest friends and their family at most, women let themselves
get swept up in it freely: they share their joy with everyone around them in the broadest sense of the
word.
 Summary tables

Joy Girls Boys

Key words/ideas Frequency Key words/ideas Frequency

Situation Playing 3/6 Schoolwork/success 3/6

Friends 2/6 Friends 4/6
Good 1/6 Break 1/6
Alone 1/6 Playing 4/6
Break 2/6 Activities 2/6
Activities 2/6
Not being disturbed 1/6

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Reasons Playing 3/6 Playing 1/6

Funny 1/6 Activities 1/6
Winning 1/6 Being with 2/6
Work 2/6 someone
Disobeying/breaking 1/6 Work/school 3/6
rules
Activities 1/6
Fooling around 1/6
Having permission 1/6
Not being disturbed 1/6

Definition and feeling Happy 3/6

towards it Good for the heart 1/6 Difficult to explain 2/6
Special occasion 2/6 Good 3/6
Good 2/6 When you have
Happiness 1/6 friends 1/6
Pleased 2/6 Sharing 1/6
Warmth 1/6 Wanting to play 1/6
Crying 1/6
Pleased 1/6
Not being bothered 1/6
Thinking about 1/6
family 1/6
Important 1/6
Unforgettable

Transmission/sharing With people they 1/6 No 4/6

like 1/6 Friends 2/6
With the teacher 1/6
Friends 1/6
Secret 1/6
Family 1/6
Listening 1/6
Forget to talk about
it

Understanding the Laughing 2/6 Prior explanation 1/6

emotions felt by Playing 3/6 Drawing 1/6
others Difficult to see 1/6 You can see it 2/6
Blushing 1/6 Difficult to see 1/6
Prior explanation 1/6 Smiling 1/6
Smiling 2/6 Playing 1/6
Pleased 1/6

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Anger Girls Boys

Key words/ideas Frequency Key words/ideas Frequency

Situation Telling off 1/6 Making mistakes 1/6

Crying 1/6 Others 1/6
Being 2/6 disobeying/breaking 1/6
annoyed/disturbed 1/6 rules + being silly 1/6
Getting angry 3/6 Being insulted 1/6
Being hit 1/6 Being annoyed 1/6
Loneliness Being hit
Never

Reasons Compassion 1/6 Being annoyed 2/6

Isolation 1/6 Harassment 1/6
Being hit/insulted 1/6 Being insulted/hit 2/6
Being annoyed 2/6 Never 1/6
Suffering 1/6
something 1/6
No response

Definition and feeling Hurts your feelings 1/6 Not good/feeling 3/6
towards it Being 4/6 bad 1/6
angry/annoyed 3/6 Sad 3/6
Sad/crying 1/6 Being 2/6
No heart 1/6 annoyed/angry 1/6
Heart pounding 1/6 Hurting somewhere
Hating 1/6 Wanting to hit 1/6
Wanting to shout 1/6 someone 1/6
Not liking 1/6 Wanting to be alone
Quickly reversible Nothing special
emotion

Transmission/sharing To classmates 1/6 No 2/6

Not wanting to 1/6 Fear of
worry 1/6 consequences 1/6
Family listening 1/6 Families 2/6
People there to 2/6 Possibility to act 1/6
help Friends 1/6
No answer No answer 1/6

Understanding the Being angry 1/6 You can see it 4/6

emotions felt by Saying nasty things 1/6 Being angry 1/6
others to each other 1/6 Not lending things 1/6
Hitting each other 2/6 You can’t see it 1/6

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You can see it 1/6 Sad 1/6
Crying 1/6 Difficult to know 2/6
Needing comfort 1/6 Lots of agitation 1/6
No smile 1/6
Solitude 1/6
Sulking 1/6
Being annoyed 1/6
Grimacing

Overall, women are more open and free with their emotions, and also more stable than men. When
their emotional capital is balanced, it is important to recognize that they are very often stronger
emotionally than men.

Ways of expressing emotions

We laugh when we are happy, cry when we are sad, curse when we are angry and are perplexed
when we are surprised. This is theory, what seems logical. We can still describe these reactions as
primary. However, as previously mentioned, not all individuals have the same emotional attitude.
This is due to the fact that we do not communicate in the same way.
Does communication = language = emotion? It might seem strange to try to draw parallels between
these apparently different notions, but this would be incorrect. In reality, emotions are a form of
non-verbal language. When two people who do not speak the same language try to communicate,
one or both of them laughing will help to decrease the tension between them (if there were any) and
put them at ease. As such, we can only analyze the ways of expressing emotions by focusing on
language.
 Emotions and non-verbal language
Emotions and non-verbal language: this is probably the first association that comes to mind when we
talk about emotions. As reactions are primarily spontaneous, it is normal to expect that individuals
will not be able to express them verbally. This is not entirely false.
In most cases, emotional reactions are physical reactions above all. We notice a change in the
individual’s gestures, facial expressions, bodily posture and sometimes even physical state.
Looking at the angry or sad face of the person to whom we are speaking, we do not need to ask them
what they are feeling. If we have not done anything to put them in this state, we immediately focus
on the origins of their emotions. As Kirouac stated, verbal language “cannot provide a full expression
of the human experience as it is unable to make subtle distinctions between emotions”. Body
language sometimes says more about the emotions felt by individuals than words.
 Emotions and verbal language
Although expression of emotions is mainly physical, we can also agree on the fact that they can be
perceived in verbal language. The voice of someone who is furious, even if they manage to remain
calm, reflects their emotions. Intonation, inflections, volume and the speed of speech are just as

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telling as any physical reaction. Indeed, it is surprising that many definitions omit this aspect. Speech
plays a decisive role in communication in general and social interactions in particular.
This may be partly due to the fact that conventional psychology limits its area of study to the
individual’s general skills, without taking care to dwell on their individual performance or
interactions. We tend to perceive non-verbal language as the only form that is able to convey
emotional information. Verbal language is relegated to expressing cognitive information.
 Emotions, written language and art
This aspect is even more overlooked than verbal language. However, any graphologist will confirm
that an individual’s writing very often says a great deal about their emotional state. Nevertheless, it
is important to recognize that this decoding is only possible for specialists. The average person is not
able to identify nervousness in someone’s writing. However, they will be able to do so in the content
of the writing itself.
The final form of expression, and probably the most popular, is art. It is important to emphasize that
art is not always synonymous with masterpieces or professional-quality artwork.
 Example
Form a group of a dozen or around twenty people (adolescents, adults or a mix of both) and give each
of them a sheet of paper. Next, ask them to draw themselves angry, then happy, then sad, and finally
scared. The drawings can be just sketches. Next, mix up the sheets of paper and give one to each
person and ask them to match the emotion to the drawing.
Even if these people come from different backgrounds and would be unable to communicate
amongst themselves in the same language, it is extremely unlikely that they will struggle to interpret
the different participants’ drawings. They will be able to represent the four emotions without needing
to be a fantastic artist.
This means of expression is even more effective if it is possible to introduce children to it from a very
early age. Once they are able to hold a pencil and understand simple instructions, initiation to basic
exercises can begin.
 Example
Give the child a sheet of paper and three colored pencils. Tell them that they need to draw a line on
the sheet of paper based on the emotions they detect. A different color needs to be attributed to each
emotion so the child does not have to choose themselves. If they are older than 4-5 years, the
approach can be freer. It is beneficial to give them freedom of action and choice. For younger children,
three basic emotions are sufficient: joy, anger and sadness.
Once they have explained the principle, the instructor or adult starts to read a story or text in which
it is easy to decode all these emotions. They may need to help the child to locate the passages in the
story to which they need to pay attention. The key is that the child is able to select the right color. The
level of complexity of the task will be increased gradually, moving from lines to circles, then to basic
drawings, and so on.

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It goes without saying that art is not the only means of emotional expression. All forms of art can be
used. The educator or therapist will select the appropriate one based on the individual’s age and
preferences.
There is no reason to prioritize one form of expression over another. It is beneficial for parents,
educators and specialists to introduce children to all forms of expression. They may not use them
every day, but they offer them a broader scope of action.

Differentiating emotions: appraisal theories

Although real interest in emotions emerged in the early 20 th century, it wasn’t until the 1980s when
there was an explosion in studies and research on the topic of emotions and their consequences on
everyday life. This sudden attention was partly due to the development of IT, but it also enabled
cognitive sciences to evolve.
Appraisal theories emerged when researchers started to analyze the position occupied by emotions
within the cognitive system more closely. Shackman, Maxwell and Davidson consider that they
occupy a privileged position in how the nervous system functions. Indeed, virtually all the nerve
functions are subject to or connected with emotions in some way.
What is appraisal theory? In psychology, it is a theory that states that “emotions are extracted from
our evaluations (appraisals or estimates) of events that cause specific reactions in different people”.
Indeed, the evaluation of any situation in which an individual finds themselves triggers an affective
or emotional response. When a child at school or an adult at work is bullied, they will feel a
permanent sense of unease and discomfort when going there. In children, this discomfort translates
as a profound hatred of not only the classmates or teachers who are bullying them, but of school in
general. In adults, it can lead to a drop in productivity.
On the other hand, if the ambience is positive, the reaction will be the opposite: the child will like
their school and participate actively in the community there, and adults will engage in their work in
order to enjoy greater support. As such, it is possible to guess or predict individuals’ reactions by
being guided by their emotional state. The important aspect of appraisal theory is that it reveals the
individual variation in emotional reactions to the same event.
The advantage of appraisal theories is that they encompass all the aspects of this topic. The
psychology of personality focuses on emotions. It analyses the processes of appearance and the
consequences on personality. However, it never engages in a profound evaluation of the emotional
impact. In the same vein, it does not attach any importance to the individual’s cognitive responses in
a specific situation.
The theories for evaluating emotion propose two approaches: the structural approach and the
process model.
 The structural approach
The theories that are based on a structural approach “postulates that the way an organism evaluates
a stimulus, event or situation determines how an emotion is triggered”. Their authors believe that
“organisms are constantly exploring their environment, reacting to the relevant stimuli”. This is why

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they create a specific set of criteria that are required to underpin the process for cognitive evaluation
of emotions.
The structural approach analyzes the relationships between the evaluations and the emotions they
cause. It rests on three pillars: relational, cognitive and motivational. Thus:
The relational dimension addresses the interactions between the individual and their
environment.
The motivational dimension deals with the evaluation of the status of objectives. It addresses the
aspect that involves evaluating a situation: a person determines how the situation is relevant in
relation to their objectives.
The cognitive dimension analyzes the evolution of the situation or an individual’s relevance for
their existence.
This approach ensures that all the individual components involved in the process of evaluating all
emotions are analyzed. It studies how and where the evaluation processes differ based on emotions.
Overall, there are two main phases of evaluation:
Primary evaluation: the individual analyzes the two dimensions of a situation. These are
motivational congruence and motivational relevance. When the individual is faced with a
situation, they ask themselves a question: how does this situation serve my needs? Motivational
relevance increases in conjunction with the emotions felt by the subject. If motivational relevance
is slow or the individual deems the situation to be incoherent overall, they will be less likely to
commit to resolving the problem.
Secondary evaluation: this focuses on the secondary benefits of the problem. This means that
individuals no longer analyze the situation from the perspective of obtaining an immediate and
direct advantage. Rather, they try to understand whether they possess enough resources to tackle
the situation. In this case, even though the individual will not be able to identify a direct
advantage, they will still try to adjust the situation in order to find some benefit in it.
In short, researchers learn to predict the individual’s reactions based on their emotional perception
of those around them and the situations they might face.
The proponents of this theory include several renowned researchers such as Richard Lazarus,
Folkman, Smith, Kirby, Haynes, Sander, Grandjean, Scherer, Siemer, Mauss and Gross.
The schema below is an example of the structural approach. Lazarus is primarily interested in stress
and its origins.

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 Process model
Some of the criticisms regularly expressed regarding appraisal theories include its complete inability
to perceive the dynamic nature of emotions, and excessive focus on the cognitive aspect while
neglecting the truly affective and therefore unpredictable side of emotions. The least we can say is
that they are fully justified.
Indeed, the majority of appraisal theories sought to rationalize processes that the individual is not
always able to control. Some researchers decided to address the issue from a different angle, but
without moving away from the basic principles. Two main theories stood out from the rest: the two-
process evaluation model and the multilevel sequential control model.
The first theory was developed by Kirby and Smith. It deepens structural perception by focusing on
the individual analysis process for the different emotional stimuli. This theory rests on three pillars:
perceptive stimuli;
associative processing;
reasoning.
Perceptive stimuli are those that every individual identifies in their environment. They may be the
emotive facial expressions of another person, sensations of pleasure or even pain. Associative
processing, meanwhile, relies on memory, which forms rapid connections and provides evaluation
information based on rapidly activated memories associated with the given stimulus. Reasoning is a
long, slow but also matured process. It rests on a logical, critical reflection on the stimulus and/or
situation. All these components lead to a more profound analysis of emotional phenomena in
general.

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The second theory, that of sequential control, also rests on three main pillars. It would be appropriate
to refer to them as processing levels. They are:
the innate or sensorimotor level;
the learned or schematic level;
the conscious or conceptual level.
Each of these processing levels has a check system composed of several phases:
checks of relevance, which analyze all the new elements and their impact on the objectives;
checks of implication, which focus on the favorable aspects of the objective as well as the speed
at which this must be achieved;
checks of coping potential, which manage the objective but also the power with which this
management is ensured;
checks of normative significance, which analyze the compatibility of the objectives with the
established standards.
Unlike the previous theory, this one is extremely specific and limits its area of study to the processes
that unfold in a restricted environment.

Link between culture and the perception of

others’ emotions
The following is a situation that everyone has experienced before at least once. You enter a room
without saying a word. Suddenly, someone (an acquaintance, family member or simply a stranger)
comes over and asks you a banal question: “Are you OK?” You haven’t said a word or even
complained. How has this person detected this feeling of worry in you?
Not everyone possesses this ability. As mentioned a little earlier, it is closely linked to the individual’s
education and the sociocultural environment in which they grew up. It will also depend on their sex,
because this has a significant impact on individuals’ faculties. We will focus on the sociocultural
aspect.
In general, when we consider the sociocultural environment, we limit ourselves to studying the
individual’s immediate environment, from birth to adulthood. This is a logical but somewhat flawed
approach. It does not take into consideration the different evolutionary factors to which the subject
might be exposed. The following example illustrates this well.
Several people are talking in an online chat. Let’s limit the group of participants to five people. Three
of these people have never been outside of their home country. Of these, one received a relatively
liberal, open education and the other two received a classical education. Of these two individuals, one
lives with a partner who comes from abroad.
The remaining two individuals have travelled: one emigrated and has been living in the country for
several years, and the other is a globetrotter who has faced diverse and varied situations. Let us
suppose that all these people have relatively similar personalities: will they have the same emotional

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reaction to a situation, especially if this event concerns an act that takes place abroad or with a
foreigner?
The answer is no. The emotional faculties develop based on the situations to which the individual has
been exposed. As a result, someone who has travelled throughout their life or for a good part of their
life will have a completely different perception from someone who has never left their home country.
In the same vein, someone who lives with a foreigner will have a different perception from someone
who has only lived with individuals who are part of their own culture.
Despite never having travelled, the person with a foreign partner will have been exposed not only to
their traditional culture, but also to a foreign culture. As such, they will be more able to interpret the
emotional reactions of their partner’s compatriots.
The individual who received a liberal education will be inclined to understand others, but it is
questionable whether they will always succeed. The expat who lives in another country will find
themselves in roughly the same situation as the person who lives with a foreign partner. However,
their reactions will be similar to those of the globetrotter because, like the latter, they will be directly
influenced by a foreign culture.

Exercises to improve one’s image

The foundations for perception and expression of emotions are laid in early childhood. However, it is
possible to make adjustments to or improve one’s emotional state through certain exercises.
 Exercise 1: To manage one’s emotions
Imagine a situation that makes you feel furious and fill in the following table:

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Imagine a situation that makes you sad or feel a sense of despair and fill in the following table:

Imagine a frightening situation, then fill in the following table:

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 Exercise 2 – The art of controlling oneself and learning to listen to others
Impatience is not a basic emotion. However, people who are unable to focus their attention on others
will also be unable to decipher the emotions of those around them. Thus, the aim of this exercise is
to teach individuals to direct their attention towards others. It is relatively simple.
Every now and then, when you are with acquaintances or friends, try to be quiet and listen to them
talk. The topic of their discussion doesn’t matter. The exercise involves listening to them attentively,
retaining as many details as possible, without being tempted to interrupt them by asking questions.
 Exercise 3 – Learning to understand and manage your emotions
Very often, we come under pressure from the negative emotions of those around us because we are
unable to assess and understand our own affective sensations. This exercise is particularly beneficial
for controlling your level of stress at work.
Think of a complex situation, whether at home or at work, then visualize two scenarios: one in which
you receive total, unconditional support from everyone around you and another in which nobody pays
attention. Then, answer the following questions.
Scenario 1 – with unconditional support from everyone

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 Scenario 2 – without any support from those around you

Once you have completed the questionnaire, analyze your reactions in both cases attentively and
determine which situation will allow you to assert yourself better.
 Exercise 4 – Learning to perceive differences
The aim of this exercise is to learn to manage your negative emotions and control your stress. To
succeed, the individual must be able to understand the emotional perception of the people around
them. This exercise draws somewhat on the principles of appraisal theories.
By understanding the environment we are in and mastering our own emotions, we can anticipate
and avoid all situations that might have unpleasant emotional consequences.
Answer the following questions.
Think of a situation where you had to support someone close to you (friend, colleague or family
member) who was going through a period of emotional distress. Can you remember if there was
anything specific about this distress? If yes, describe it.

What specific techniques did you use to help them get back on their feet? Would you have used this
same technique to support other friends and acquaintances? If no, explain why you decided to take
this particular, individualized approach.

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What signals given out by this friend, colleague or family member encouraged you to use this specific
approach rather than any other?

Did you achieve all the objectives you set yourself? Do you think you could have adopted a different
approach to the one you used? If yes, which?

 Exercise 5 – Opening up to others by asking precise, clear questions

There are two broad types of questions: open and closed questions. Closed questions are those to
which the answer can only be yes or no. These are to be avoided. Understanding those around us
involves paying attention to all the details that make up their emotional personality. To do this, you
need to ask open questions, i.e., questions that encourage the individual to say more about their
motivations and expectations.
Train yourself to only ask open questions for a day (or longer if necessary). Pay close attention to the
answers and then take care to analyze them and draw the appropriate conclusions.
 Exercise 6 – Developing empathy
This exercise will be extremely helpful for people who struggle to decipher the emotions of those
around them.
The participant needs to pay attention to the state the people around them are in. Whenever someone
they are close to finds themselves in a state of distress, the participant should take care to observe
and listen to them. Then, they should isolate themselves to try to relive all the difficult moments
experienced by this person in detail. The aim is to learn to understand others’ feelings and emotions.
 Exercise 7 (for children) – Learning to grade emotions
The aim of this exercise is to teach children to pay attention to what really matters. It involves
classifying adjectives based on their emotional impact.
Emotion - joy

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Emotion - anger

 Exercise 8
This exercise teaches children to give their own definition of emotions. It is to be done with a friend
or acquaintance.

 Exercise 9 – Learning to understand emotions

Like the previous exercise, this is to be done with a friend.
Analyze the following emotions and feelings and sort them in the table below.
Jealousy - Mistrust - Joy - Hatred - Fear - Satisfaction – Love - Admiration - Anger – Cheerfulness -
Anxiety - Affection - Suffering - Calmness - Confidence - Fragility

The exercises you choose will depend on your objective and the participant’s state.

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Conclusion
At the end of the 19th century, Lange, when discussing emotions, declared: “It can be said without
exaggeration that, scientifically, we understand absolutely nothing about emotions, and that we do
not have a shadow of a theory regarding the nature of emotions in general or any emotion in
particular.”
Several decades later, another researcher, Frijda, stated: “Thus, there is no real theory of emotions.
By ‘real theory of emotions’, I mean a theory of the human organism, or the biological systems in
general, within which emotion has a place of its own among other components like information
processing and adaptation.”
The least we can say, even at the sight of all the studies carried out in these areas to this day, is that
both researchers were completely correct. There is arguably no other domain in cognitive science
that is more complex to deal with than emotions. This complexity is not only apparent when studying
cognitive sciences, but also in everyday life.
It is not always easy to understand the emotional state of those close to us, or even our own
emotional state. This is no doubt why many researchers have tried to understand and analyze these
phenomena for four decades already.
Indeed, it is important to acknowledge that a large proportion of the acts we perform are carried out
under the influence of emotions. Among these acts, we can include our choice of partner, housing,
career, place of residence, clothing style, diet, and the number of children we have, if any.
Understanding and mastering our emotions facilitates understanding of the emotions and feelings of
others, with the direct consequence being a better perception of our own life and that of those
around us. Children are initiated into this idea from birth in order to improve their social skills. These
traits are improved in adults to help them to hone their adaptability.
Researchers have now managed to grasp the immensity of this topic and the studies conducted are
becoming gradually more in-depth. Nevertheless, much remains to be done. This topic is particularly
interesting when connected with developments in information technology.

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