Lesson - 1
Vector
1 Scalar Triple Product:
~ B
A.( ~ × C)
~ or A. ~B ~ ×C~ or ~B
[A ~ C]
~
~ B
It is nothing but the volume of a parallelepiped generated by A, ~ and C~
~ = A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂
If A
~
B = B1 î + B2 ĵ + B3 k̂
~ = C1 î + C2 ĵ + C3 k̂
C
A1 A2 A3
then B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
~
A.(B~ × C)
~ = B.( ~ C~ × A)
~ = C.(
~ A
~ × B)
~
~ B
A necessary and sufficient condition for the A, ~ and C
~ to be coplanar is that A.(
~ B ~ × C)
~ = 0.
2 Vector Triple Product:
A~ × (B~ × C)
~ [Parenthesis must be retained]
It is a vector.
A~ × (B~ × C)
~ = B(
~ A.
~ C)
~ − C(~ A.
~ B)
~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
A × (B × C) 6= (A × (B) × C ~
3 Vector Differentiation
~
R(u) = a vector depending only on a single variable u.
~ ~
△R
~
The ordinary derivative of vector R(u) with respect to u is given by dR
= lim△u→0
du △u
~
R(u+△u)− ~
R(u)
= lim△u→0 △u , if limit exists
dR~
du is a vector in the direction of the tangent to the curve at any point.
d ~ ~ dA~ dB~
du (A ± B) = du ± du
d ~ ~ ~ dB~ ~ dA~
du (A.B) = A. du + B. du
d ~ ~ ~ dB~ ~
dA ~
du (A × B) = A × du + du × B
d ~ ~
dA dφ ~
du (φA) = φ du + du A
4 Partial derivatives of vectors
~ = R(x,
If R ~ y, z)
~ ~ ~
then ∂∂x
R
= lim△x→0 R(x+△x,y,z)−
△x
R(x,y,z)
Similarly for other variables.
Higher derivatives-
1
~
∂2A ∂ ∂A ~
∂x2
= ∂x ∂x
∂2A~ ∂ ∂A~
∂x∂y = ∂x ∂y
∂2A~ ∂ ∂A~
∂y∂x = ∂y ∂x
∂2A~ ~
∂2A
∂x∂y = ∂y∂x
~ has continuous partial derivatives of second order)
(if A
∂ ~ ~ ~ ∂ B~ ~ ∂ A~
∂u (A.B) = A. ∂u + B. ∂u
∂ ~ ~ =A
(A × B) ~ × ∂ B~ + ∂ A~ × B
~
∂u ∂u ∂u
5 Differentials of vectors
~ = A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂
If A
⇒ dA ~ = dA1 î + dA2 ĵ + dA3 k̂
~ ~ = A.d
d(A.B) ~ B ~ + B.d
~ A~
~ ~ ~ ~
d(A × B) = A × dB + dA ~×B~
~ = A(x,
~ y, z) then dA
~= ~
∂A ~
∂A ~
∂A
If A ∂x dx + ∂y dy + ∂z dz
Problems
~ ~ and ~
dA
1. If A(t) has constant magnitude, show that A dt are perpendicular to each other pro-
~
dA
vided dt 6= 0.
~ dA~ = A dA
2. Show that A. dt dt
~ ~
dA ~ has a constant magnitude.
3. If A × dt = 0, the the vector A
6 Gradient
Let T = T (x, y, z)
then
∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = ∂x dx + ∂y dy + ∂z dz
dT = î ∂T
∂x + ĵ ∂T
∂y + k̂ ∂T
∂z . îdx + ĵdy + k̂dz
dT = ∇T.d~
r
Here d~r = îdx + ĵdy + k̂dz is the infinitesimal displacement vector
and ∇T = î ∂T ∂T ∂T
∂x + ĵ ∂y + k̂ ∂z
This first order differential operator is called the gradient of T . It is a vector quantity.
6.1 Geometrical interpretation of the gradient
1. Like any vector the gradient has both direction and magnitude.
2
2. dT = ∇T.d~r = |∇T ||d~r| cos θ, where θ is the angle b/w ∇T and d~r
For a given value of |d~r|, the maximum change in T evidently occurs when θ = 0 i.e.
∇T || d~r
Hence The magnitude ∇T points towards a direction along which T changes
most rapidly and the magnitude |∇T | gives the slope (rate of increase) along
the maximal direction.
3. If d~r is taken in the direction along which T = constant , we have
dT = ∇T.d~r = 0.
Therefore ∇T is perpendicular to all such direction. Hence ∇T has a direction normal
to the surface T = constant.
Example: Electric potential V = constant surface – equipotential surface – E ~ = −∇V is
~
perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces, E is the electric field vector.
4. If ∇T = 0 at (x, y, z), then dT = 0 for small displacement about the point (x, y, z), then
axis a stationary point of the function T (x, y, z),
It could be maximum(summit)
minimum(a volley)
a saddle point(a pass)
or shoulder.
5. If φ(x, y, z) = c represents a family of surfaces for different values of constant c
Therefore dφ = ∇φ.d~r = 0
Therefore ∇φ is a vector normal to the surface (x, y, z) = c
ˆ is called direc-
6. The componenet of ∇φ in the direction of a vector d~ is equal to ∇φ.[Link]
~
tional derivative of φ in the direction of d
Problems
4. Find a unit vector normal to the surface x2 + 3y 2 + 2z 2 = 6 at P (2, 0, 1)
5. Find the angle b/w the surfaces x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 and z = x2 + y 2 − 3 at the point (2, −1, 2)
6. Find the constants a and b so that the surface ax2 − byz = (a + 2)x will be orthogonal to
the surface 4x2 y + z 3 = 4 at the point (1, −1, 2).
• ∇(F + G) = ∇F + ∇G
• ∇(F G) = F ∇G + G∇F
2 − 12
• ∇ 1r = î ∂T
∂x + ĵ ∂T
∂y + k̂ ∂T 2 2
∂z (x + y + z )
1
=− 3 (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) = − |r|~r 3
(x2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2
Problems
7. Show that ∇rn = nrn−2~r.
3
7 Divergence
Let A~ = A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂ be defined and differentiable at each point (x, y, z) in a certain region
of space, ~ is defined by
then the divergence of A
∇.A~ = î ∂ + ĵ ∂ + k̂ ∂ .(A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
= ∂x + ∂y + ∂z
~ is a vector function in the middle (at P(x,y,z) in figure) of an infinitesimal volume with
A
sides dx, dy and dz parallel to the axes x, y and z.
The
value of ycomponent of the vector at the middle of the faces ABCD and EFGH are
1 ∂A2 1 ∂A2
A2 − 2 ∂y dy ĵ and A2 + 2 ∂y dy ĵ.
Area vector on ABCD is −dxdz ĵ
Area vector on ABCD is +dxdz ĵ
~ through the surface S is given by ~ S ~
H
• Flux of A S A.d
So the excess of flux leaving the element over that entering it in y direction is given by
~ S)
(A.d ~ ~ ~
ABCD + (A.dS)EF GH
= − A2 − 2 ∂y dy dxdz + A2 + 12 ∂A
1 ∂A2
∂y
2
dy dxdz
= ∂Ady dxdydz.
2
Similarly the contributions parallel to x and z directions are respectively
∂A1 ∂A3
dx dxdydz and dz dxdydz
The total flux leaving over entering or diverging from the element is
∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
= dx + dy + dz dxdydz
∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
Hence The total flux diverging from per unit volume of the element is dx + dy + dz .
In the limit as the parallelepiped shrinks to P, i.e. as dx, dy and dz approach zero the above
quantity is defined as the divergence of the vector A:~
~=
∇.A ∂A1
+ ∂A2
+ ∂A3
∂x ∂y ∂z
~ is itself a scalar.
1. The divergence of avector function A
2. The divergence of a scalar is meaningless.
~ 6= A.∇
3. ∇.A ~
~ is ameasure of how much the vector A
4. ∇.A ~ spreads out or diverges from the point in
questiion.
4
5. The positive divergence at a point in fluid means the rate at which the field lines (repre-
senting the field) are emerging from the point – the point is a source at which the
field lines are entering the field.
6. Negative divergence measures the rate of converge of the field lines towards a point – the
point is sink at which field line are leaving or draining out of the field.
~ = 0 means the equality
7. The vanishing of divergence at every point in aregion of space ∇.A
of the field lines entering and leaving any element of volume in that region.
~ = 0, then A
8. If ∇.A ~ is called solenoidal (means tube).
~ + B)
9. ∇.(A ~ = ∇.A
~ + ∇.B.
~
~ = (∇φ).A
10. ∇.(φA) ~ + φ(∇.A)
~
11. ∇.~r = 3
12. ∇. r~r3 = 0 (Consider φ = 1
, ~ = ~r, use ∇.(φA)
and A ~ = (∇φ).A
~ + φ(∇.A)
~ and ∇rn =
r3
nrn−2~r)
13. ∇.∇φ = ∇2 φ
Problems
8. Show that ∇.(φA) ~ = (∇φ).A
~ + φ(∇.A).
~
2 1
9. Show that ∇ r .
10. Find ∇2 (rn ).
8 Curl
~ y, z) = A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂ be defined and differentiable at each point (x, y, z) in a certain
If A(x,
region of
space, then the curl ~ ~ ~ ~
or rotation of A, writte as ∇ × A, curl A or rot A is defined by
∇×A ~ = î + ĵ + k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z × (A1 î + A2 ĵ + A3 k̂)
î î î
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
A1 A2 A3
• Curl of a vector is also a vector.
~ is a measure of how much a vector A
• ∇×A ~ curls around the point in question.
~ = 0, A
• ∇×A ~ is called irrotational.
~ ~ ~
H
• The closed line or path integral of a vector A, C [Link], around the bounding edge of a
small vector area, in general, depends on the orientation of area.
There will be an orientation of the area for which the value of the line integral is maximum.
The amount of this maximum line integral per unit area is the magnitude of the curl of
the vector field at that point and is given the vectorial sense of the +ve normal drawn
on the small area at the orentation giving this greatest integral.
~ + B)
• ∇ × (A ~ =∇×A
~ + ∇ × B.
~
5
~ = (∇φ) × A
• ∇ × (φA) ~ + φ(∇ × A)
~
• ∇ × ~r = 0
Some important relations:
f g∇f −f ∇g
1. ∇ g = g2
~ −A.(∇g)
~
~
A g∇.Af
2. ∇. g = g2
~ +A×(∇g)
~
~
A g∇×Af
3. ∇ × g = g2
4. ∇ × (∇φ) = 0
~ =0
5. ∇.(∇ × A)
~ × B)
6. ∇.(A ~ = B.∇
~ ×A~ − A.∇
~ ×B~
~ = ∇2 A
7. ∇ × (∇ × A) ~ + ∇(∇ × A)
~
Problems 11. Show that ∇ × (A ~ × B)
~ = B.∇~ ×A ~ − A.∇
~ ×B ~
12. Show that ∇ × (∇φ) = 0
~ = 0 14. If A
13. Show that ∇.(∇ × A) ~ and B
~ are irrotational, show that A ~ ×B ~ is irrotational.
15. Find constants a, b, c so that V = (x + 2y + az)î + (bx − 3y − z)ĵ + (4x + cy + 2z)k̂ is
irrotational
16. Show that A~ = (6xy + z 3 )î + (3x2 − z)ĵ + (3xz 2 − y)k̂ is irrotational. Find φ such that
A~ = ∇φ.