Unit 1 - Development

1. What is development?

Development refers to the systematic, continuous, and progressive changes that take place in an individual
from conception to death. It includes physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth, all of which occur
in an orderly pattern. Development is both quantitative (changes in height, weight, size) and qualitative
(changes in thinking, reasoning, emotions, abilities). It also proceeds from simple forms of functioning to
more complex and refined patterns.

Example: A child’s ability to speak improves from single words short sentences full conversations.

---

2. What are the principles of development?

Development follows several important principles. It is predictable and sequential, meaning individuals
grow in a fixed order such as sitting crawling standing walking. It follows directional trends, mainly
cephalocaudal (head to toe) and proximodistal (centre to outward). Development is continuous, although the
rate may vary from person to person. It involves both general to specific movements and includes both
quantitative and qualitative changes.

Example: A baby first moves the whole arm, then learns to pick up objects with fingers.

---
3. What is naturalistic observation?

Naturalistic observation is a research method in which the researcher observes behavior in its natural
environment without interfering or controlling the situation. It helps in understanding real-life,
spontaneous behaviors exactly as they occur. This method provides rich, authentic data but offers less
control over external variables, which may influence the behavior being observed.

Example: Observing children playing in a park to study cooperation and social interaction.

---

4. What is assimilation in Piaget’s theory?

Assimilation is the cognitive process in which new information is understood by fitting it into existing
mental schemas. Individuals use what they already know to interpret new experiences. It allows children to
make sense of the world using familiar concepts, but sometimes may lead to incorrect interpretations until
schemas are modified through accommodation. Assimilation is one of the key components of Piaget’s
theory of cognitive development.

Example: A child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a “striped horse.”

---

5. What is object permanence?

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible or
directly sensed. This ability is a major cognitive milestone and develops during Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
(0–2 years). It shows that infants begin to form mental representations and understand that the world is
stable and predictable. Without object permanence, infants believe that when something disappears from
sight, it no longer exists.

Example: A baby searches for a toy hidden under a blanket because they know it still exists.

---

Unit 2 — CHILDHOOD

1. What are the main physical characteristics of childhood?

Childhood is marked by steady physical growth and the refinement of motor skills. Children show an
increase in height, weight, and muscular strength, along with the development of better coordination and
balance. Their teeth are replaced by permanent teeth, and the brain continues to grow, improving attention
and motor control. Physical energy is high during this stage, allowing children to participate in play and
daily activities actively.

Example: A child who once struggled to hold a pencil learns to write neatly and run smoothly.

---

2. What is a developmental task?

A developmental task is a specific skill, ability, or achievement that an individual is expected to learn at a
particular stage of life. Successfully completing these tasks leads to happiness and success in later stages,
while failure may cause difficulties in future development. Developmental tasks are influenced by biological
growth, cultural expectations, and personal experiences.
Example: Learning to read and write is a major developmental task during early school years.

---

3. What is the role of the family in personality development?

The family plays a foundational role in shaping a child’s personality. It provides the first environment
where the child learns emotional expression, values, habits, social behavior, and communication. Family
climate, parenting style, affection, discipline, and modeling all influence how children think, feel, and
behave. A supportive and nurturing family encourages confidence and emotional stability, while harsh or
inconsistent parenting may lead to insecurity.

Example: A child raised in a warm, encouraging home tends to develop positive self-esteem.

---

4. What are psychological hazards in childhood?

Psychological hazards refer to emotional and behavioral difficulties that may negatively affect a child’s
mental well-being. These hazards include fear, anxiety, jealousy, aggression, inferiority feelings, withdrawal,
and insecurity. They may arise from family conflict, overprotection, rejection, sibling rivalry, or school
pressure. If not addressed, these hazards can hinder healthy development and adjustment.

Example: A child who constantly faces comparison may develop feelings of inferiority.

---
5. What is social development in childhood?

Social development in childhood refers to the process of learning to interact with others, follow social
rules, build relationships, and participate in group activities. Children learn cooperation, sharing,
communication, empathy, and socially acceptable behavior. Family, school, and peer groups all contribute to
shaping a child’s social skills and sense of belonging.

Example: A child learns to take turns and share toys while playing with classmates.

---

Unit 3 — Adolescence

1. What is adolescence? Explain in brief.

Adolescence is the transitional stage between childhood and adulthood, usually ranging from 12 to 18
years. It involves rapid physical, emotional, cognitive, and social changes. Teenagers develop a stronger
sense of identity, independence, and self-awareness. This period includes puberty, which brings major
biological changes, and the search for personal values and goals.

Example: A teenager begins to question beliefs and form their own opinions.

---

2. Mention any two physical changes during adolescence.

Two major physical changes during adolescence are:

2. Development of secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair in boys and breast development in
girls.

Example: A boy’s voice deepens and he becomes noticeably taller within a year.

---

3. What is peer pressure in adolescence?

Peer pressure refers to the influence that individuals of the same age group exert on one another, often
affecting behavior, decisions, and attitudes. Adolescents may conform to peer expectations to gain
acceptance, avoid rejection, or feel a sense of belonging. Peer pressure can be positive or negative
depending on the behavior encouraged.

Example: A teenager may start studying harder because their friends value good grades.

---

4. Define identity crisis.

Identity crisis is a period of confusion and uncertainty in which adolescents struggle to understand who
they are, what they believe in, and what roles they want to take in life. According to Erikson, this occurs
during the stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion. Successfully resolving this crisis leads to a clear sense of
identity and purpose.

Example: A teenager may feel unsure about career choices and personal values.
---

5. What are emotional hazards of adolescence?

Emotional hazards include mood swings, anger, frustration, anxiety, insecurity, low self-esteem, and
emotional conflicts. These hazards arise due to hormonal changes, academic pressure, peer expectations,
and the struggle for independence. If unmanaged, these emotional difficulties can affect relationships, well-
being, and self-confidence.

Example: A teenager may feel easily irritated or overwhelmed due to stress.

---

Unit 4 — OLD AGE

1. What is old age?

Old age is the final stage of the human life span, generally beginning around 60 years and above. It is
characterized by physical decline, reduced energy, retirement from work, and increased dependence on
others. This stage also involves adjustment to life changes, such as loss of loved ones and reduced social
roles, requiring emotional and social adaptation.

Example: An elderly person may rely more on family members for daily activities.

---

2. Mention any two physical changes seen in old age.

1. Decreased muscle strength and flexibility.

2. Decline in sensory abilities, such as reduced vision and hearing

Example: An elderly person may need glasses due to weakening eyesight.

---

3. What is the major developmental task of old age?

The major developmental task of old age is adjustment—adjusting to retirement, reduced income, declining
health, and changes in social roles. According to Erikson, the central task is achieving ego integrity, where
individuals reflect on their life with satisfaction rather than regret. Successfully completing this task leads
to peace, acceptance, and wisdom.

Example: An older adult accepting life changes instead of feeling hopeless.

---

4. What is social isolation in old age?

Social isolation refers to the reduced social interaction experienced by many older adults due to retirement,
health problems, limited mobility, or the loss of friends and family members. It can lead to loneliness,
depression, and decreased quality of life. Social isolation often affects emotional well-being and overall
health.
Example: An elderly person living alone may feel disconnected from others.

---

5. Mention any two hazards of old age.

Two major hazards in old age are:

1. Health hazards – chronic illnesses like arthritis, hypertension, and diabetes.

2. Emotional hazards – loneliness, depression, insecurity, and fear of dependence.

Example: An elderly person may feel anxious due to declining health and lack of support.