1 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

Definition 1.1. Suppose that H is a subgroup of G and g ∈ G. The set gH is called the
left coset of H containing g, and the set Hg is called the right coset of H containing g. The
element g is called a coset representative of the cosets gH and Hg.
Theorem 1.2 (Theorem 7.1.2). Let H be a subgroup of G, and let a, b ∈ G. Then:
1. a ∈ aH.

2. a ∈ H if and only if aH = H.

3. (ab)H = a(bH) and H(ab) = (Ha)b.

4. a ∈ bH if and only if aH = bH.

5. aH = bH if and only if a−1 b ∈ H.

6. Either aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ∅.

7. |aH| = |bH|.

8. |aH| = |H|.

9. aH = Ha if and only if H = aHa−1 .

10. aH is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈ H.

Corollary 1.3 (Corollary 7.1.3). The distinct left cosets of a subgroup H of a group G
partition G.
Corollary 1.4 (Corollary 7.1.4). Let H be a subgroup of G. The relation ∼ defined by a ∼ b
if and only if aH = bH is an equivalence relation on G. Moreover, the equivalence classes
are the cosets of H.
Theorem 1.5 (Lagrange’s Theorem 7.2.1). The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides
the order of the group.
Definition 1.6 (Index of a Subgroup 7.2.2). The index of a subgroup H in G is the number
of distinct left cosets of H in G. It is denoted by [G : H].
Corollary 1.7 (Corollary 7.2.3). If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then

|G|
[G : H] = .
|H|

Corollary 1.8 (Corollary 7.2.4). If m does not divide |G|, then G has no subgroup of order
m.
Corollary 1.9 (Corollary 7.2.5). Let G be a finite group and g ∈ G. Then:
1. |g| divides |G|.

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 2. g |G| = e.

Corollary 1.10 (Corollary 7.2.6). If G is a finite group of prime order, then G is cyclic.
Moreover, every non-identity element of G is a generator.

Corollary 1.11 (Corollary 7.2.7). If G is a group of prime order p, then G ∼

= Zp .
Corollary 1.12 (Fermat’s Little Theorem 7.2.8). For every prime p and every integer a,

ap ≡ a (mod p).

Theorem 1.13 (Theorem 7.2.9). If H and K are finite subgroups of a group G, then

|H||K|
|HK| = .
|H ∩ K|

Theorem 1.14 (Theorem 7.2.10). If G is a group of order 2p where p > 2 is prime, then

G∼
= Z2p or G∼
= Dp .

Corollary 1.15 (Corollary 7.2.11). S3 ∼

= D3 .

2 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups

Definition 2.1 (Normal Subgroup 8.1.1). A subgroup N of G is normal, written N ⊴ G, if
for all g ∈ G and n ∈ N ,
gng −1 ∈ N.

Lemma 2.2 (Lemma 8.1.2). If N ⊴ G, then for any g ∈ G and n ∈ N , there exist n′ , n′′ ∈ N
such that
gn = n′ g and ng = gn′′ .

Theorem 2.3 (Theorem 8.1.3). Let N be a subgroup of G. The following are equivalent:

1. gng −1 ∈ N for all g ∈ G, n ∈ N .

2. gN g −1 ⊆ N for all g ∈ G.

3. gN g −1 = N for all g ∈ G.

4. gN = N g for all g ∈ G.

Lemma 2.4 (Lemma 8.1.4). If N ⊴ G and K ≤ G, then

N K = {nk | n ∈ N, k ∈ K}

is a subgroup of G.

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Theorem 2.5 (Otto Hölder, 1889 — Theorem 8.2.1). If N ⊴ G, then the set

G/N = {gN | g ∈ G}

forms a group under the operation

(aN )(bN ) = (ab)N.

Definition 2.6 (Quotient Group 8.2.2). If N ⊴ G, the quotient group G/N is the group
whose elements are the left cosets of N in G with multiplication (aN )(bN ) = (ab)N .

Lemma 2.7 (Lemma 8.2.3). If the set of left cosets of a subgroup H forms a group under
coset multiplication, then H is normal in G.

Lemma 2.8 (Lemma 8.2.4). For any n ∈ N,

nZ ⊴ Z, Z/nZ ∼
= Zn .

Theorem 2.9 (Theorem 8.2.5). If Z(G) is the center of G and G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is
abelian.

Lemma 2.10 (Lemma 8.2.6). If N ⊴ G and K ≤ G/N , then the union of all cosets in K
is a subgroup of G.

Theorem 2.11 (Theorem 8.2.7). For any group G,

G/Z(G) ∼
= Inn(G).

Corollary 2.12 (Corollary 8.2.8).

Inn(D6 ) ∼
= D3 .

Theorem 2.13 (Cauchy’s Theorem 8.2.9). If G is a finite abelian group and p is a prime
dividing |G|, then G has an element of order p.

3 Simple Groups
Definition 3.1 (Simple Group 8.3.1). A nontrivial group G is simple if its only normal
subgroups are {e} and G.

Lemma 3.2 (Lemma 8.3.2). If N is a maximal proper normal subgroup of G, then G/N is
simple.

Lemma 3.3 (Lemma 8.3.3). If G is a nontrivial finite abelian simple group, then G is cyclic
of prime order.

Theorem 3.4 (Feit–Thompson Theorem 8.3.5). Every finite nonabelian simple group has
even order.

3
4 Direct Products
Definition 4.1 (External Direct Product 9.1.1). Let (G, ·) and (H, ∗) be groups. The
(external) direct product of G and H is the group G ⊕ H whose underlying set is

G ⊕ H = {(g, h) | g ∈ G, h ∈ H},

with binary operation defined componentwise by

(g1 , h1 )(g2 , h2 ) = (g1 · g2 , h1 ∗ h2 ).

Lemma 4.2 (Lemma 9.1.2). If G is a group of order 4, then

G∼
= Z4 or G∼
= Z2 ⊕ Z2 .

Theorem 4.3 (Theorem 9.1.3). Let G and H be finite groups and (g, h) ∈ G ⊕ H. Then

|(g, h)| = lcm(|g|, |h|).

Theorem 4.4 (Theorem 9.1.4). Let G1 , G2 , . . . , Gn be finite groups. Then for any (g1 , g2 , . . . , gn ) ∈
G1 ⊕ G2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Gn ,
|(g1 , g2 , . . . , gn )| = lcm(|g1 |, |g2 |, . . . , |gn |).

Lemma 4.5 (Lemma 9.1.5). Let G and H be groups.

1. G ⊕ H ∼
= H ⊕ G.
2. G ⊕ H contains subgroups isomorphic to G and H.

3. If A ≤ G and B ≤ H, then A ⊕ B ≤ G ⊕ H.

4. If K ∼
= G and L ∼
= H, then K ⊕ L ∼
= G ⊕ H.
Theorem 4.6 (Theorem 9.1.6). Let G and H be finite groups. Then G ⊕ H is cyclic if and
only if G and H are cyclic and |G| and |H| are coprime.

Corollary 4.7 (Corollary 9.1.7). Let k = mn. Then

Zk ∼
= Zm ⊕ Zn

if and only if m and n are coprime.

Theorem 4.8 (Theorem 9.1.8). If n = st with gcd(s, t) = 1, then

U (n) ∼
= U (s) ⊕ U (t).

Definition 4.9 (Internal Direct Product 9.2.1). A group G is the internal direct product of
subgroups H and K, written G = H × K, if:

1. H ⊴ G and K ⊴ G;

4
 2. G = HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K};

3. H ∩ K = {e}.
Definition 4.10 (Definition 9.2.2). If s divides n, define

Us (n) = {k ∈ U (n) | k ≡ 1 (mod s)}.

Lemma 4.11 (Lemma 9.2.3). If n = st with gcd(s, t) = 1, then

U (n) = Us (n) × Ut (n).

Theorem 4.12 (Theorem 9.2.4). If G = H × K, then

G∼
= H ⊕ K.

Definition 4.13 (Internal Direct Product 9.2.5). A group G is the internal direct product
of subgroups H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn , written

G = H1 × H2 × · · · × Hn ,

if:
1. Hi ⊴ G for all i;

2. G = H1 H2 · · · Hn ;

3. (H1 H2 · · · Hi ) ∩ Hi+1 = {e} for i = 1, . . . , n − 1.

Theorem 4.14 (Theorem 9.2.6). If G = H1 × H2 × · · · × Hn , then

G∼
= H1 ⊕ H2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Hn .

Theorem 4.15 (Theorem 9.2.7). If |G| = p2 for a prime p, then

G∼
= Zp2 or G∼
= Zp ⊕ Zp .

Corollary 4.16 (Corollary 9.2.8). Every group of order p2 is abelian.

5 Group Homomorphisms
Definition 5.1 (Group Homomorphism 10.1.1). A function φ : G → H is a group homo-
morphism if
φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b) for all a, b ∈ G.
Definition 5.2 (Kernel 10.1.2). The kernel of a homomorphism φ : G → H is

ker φ = {g ∈ G | φ(g) = eH }.

Theorem 5.3 (Theorem 10.2.1). Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism.

5
 1. φ(eG ) = eH .

2. φ(g n ) = (φ(g))n for all n ∈ Z.

3. If g has finite order, then |φ(g)| divides |g|.

Theorem 5.4 (Theorem 10.2.2). ker φ ⊴ G.

Theorem 5.5 (Theorem 10.2.3). Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism.

1. φ(a) = φ(b) iff a ker φ = b ker φ.

2. If φ(g) = h, then φ−1 (h) = g ker φ.

3. φ is injective iff ker φ = {eG }.

Theorem 5.6 (Theorem 10.2.4). Let S ≤ G.

1. φ(S) ≤ H.

2. If S is abelian, then φ(S) is abelian.

3. If S is cyclic, then φ(S) is cyclic.

4. If S ⊴ G, then φ(S) ⊴ φ(G).

5. If | ker φ| = n, then φ is n-to-1.

6. If G is finite, then |φ(G)| divides |G|.

Theorem 5.7 (Theorem 10.2.5). Let L ≤ H.

1. φ−1 (L) ≤ G.

2. If L ⊴ H, then φ−1 (L) ⊴ G.

Theorem 5.8 (First Isomorphism Theorem 10.3.3). If φ : G → H is a homomorphism,

then
G/ ker φ ∼
= φ(G).

Theorem 5.9 (Second Isomorphism Theorem 10.3.6). If H ≤ G and N ⊴ G, then

HN/N ∼
= H/(H ∩ N ).

Theorem 5.10 (Third Isomorphism Theorem 10.3.7). If N ⊴ K ⊴ G, then

(G/N )/(K/N ) ∼
= G/K.

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6 Finite Abelian Groups
Theorem 6.1 (Fundamental Theorem 11.1.1). Every finite abelian group is isomorphic to
a direct product of cyclic groups of prime-power order.
Corollary 6.2 (Corollary 11.1.2). The only finite abelian simple groups are cyclic groups of
prime order.
Theorem 6.3 (Theorem 11.3.1). Let |G| = pn m where p does not divide m. Then

G = H × K,

where
n
H = {x ∈ G | xp = e}, K = {x ∈ G | xm = e}.
Moreover, |H| = pn .
Theorem 6.4 (Theorem 11.3.3). If G is an abelian group of prime-power order and g has
maximum order, then
G = ⟨g⟩ × K
for some subgroup K.
Theorem 6.5 (Theorem 11.3.4). Every abelian group of prime-power order is an internal
direct product of cyclic groups.
Theorem 6.6 (Theorem 11.3.5). Let

G = H1 × · · · × Hk = K1 × · · · × Km

with Hi , Ki cyclic and |Hi | ≥ |Hi+1 |, |Ki | ≥ |Ki+1 |. Then k = m and |Hi | = |Ki |.
Corollary 6.7 (Corollary 11.3.6). If m divides |G|, then G has a subgroup of order m.
Lemma 6.8 (Lemma 11.3.7). Two finite abelian groups are isomorphic if and only if they
have the same number of elements of each order.

7 Rings
Definition 7.1 (Ring 12.1.1). A ring is a set R equipped with two binary operations,
addition (+) and multiplication (·), satisfying:
1. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Addition associativity)

2. There exists 0 ∈ R such that a + 0 = a (Additive identity)

3. For each a ∈ R, there exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = 0 (Additive inverse)

4. a + b = b + a (Addition commutativity)

5. (a · b) · c = a · (b · c) (Multiplication associativity)

7
 6. a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) (Left distributivity)

7. (b + c) · a = (b · a) + (c · a) (Right distributivity)

Lemma 7.2 (Lemma 12.1.4). If a ring has a unity, then it is unique. If an element r has
a multiplicative inverse, then it is unique and is denoted by r−1 .

Definition 7.3 (Direct Sum of Rings 12.1.5). Let R and S be rings. The direct sum of R
and S is
R ⊕ S = {(a, b) | a ∈ R, b ∈ S},
with operations defined componentwise:

(a1 , b1 ) + (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ),

(a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 a2 , b1 b2 ).

Lemma 7.4 (Lemma 12.2.1). Let R be a ring and a, b, c ∈ R. Then:

1. a · 0R = 0R and 0R · a = 0R .

2. a · (−b) = −(a · b) and (−a) · b = −(a · b).

3. (−a) · (−b) = a · b.

4. a · (b − c) = (a · b) − (a · c) and (b − c) · a = (b · a) − (c · a).

Lemma 7.5 (Lemma 12.2.2). Let R be a ring with unity 1R and a ∈ R. Then:

1. (−1R ) · a = −a.

2. (−1R ) · (−1R ) = 1R .

Lemma 7.6 (Lemma 12.2.3). Let a, b ∈ R and m, n ∈ Z. Then

(ma) · (nb) = (mn)(a · b).

Definition 7.7 (Subring 12.3.1). A subset S of a ring R is a subring of R if S is itself a

ring under the operations of R.

Lemma 7.8 (Subring Test 12.3.2). Let S be a nonempty subset of a ring R. If S is closed
under subtraction and multiplication, then S is a subring of R.

8 Integral Domains
Definition 8.1 (Integral Domain 13.1.1). An integral domain is a commutative ring with
unity in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero.

Definition 8.2 (Zero Divisor 13.1.2). An element a ∈ R is a zero divisor if a ̸= 0R and

there exists b ̸= 0R such that ab = 0R .

8
Lemma 8.3 (Lemma 13.1.3). Every field is an integral domain.

Lemma 8.4 (Cancellation Law 13.1.4). If a, b, c are elements of an integral domain and
a ̸= 0 with ab = ac, then b = c.

Theorem 8.5 (Theorem 13.1.5). Every finite integral domain is a field.

Corollary 8.6 (Corollary 13.1.6). For any prime p, the ring Zp is a field.

Definition 8.7 (Characteristic of a Ring 13.2.1). The characteristic of a ring R is the least
positive integer n such that

x {z· · · + x} = 0R
| +x+ for all x ∈ R.
n times

If no such n exists, then char(R) = 0.

Lemma 8.8 (Lemma 13.2.2). If 1R has infinite order under addition, then char(R) = 0.
Otherwise, char(R) is the order of 1R .

Theorem 8.9 (Theorem 13.2.3). The characteristic of an integral domain is either 0 or a

prime.

Corollary 8.10 (Corollary 13.2.4). The characteristic of a field is either 0 or a prime.

Lemma 8.11 (Lemma 13.2.5). If R is a finite ring, then

1 ≤ char(R) ≤ |R| and char(R) | |R|.

9 Ideals
Definition 9.1 (Ideal 14.1.1). A subring I of a ring R is an ideal if for all r ∈ R and a ∈ I,

ra ∈ I and ar ∈ I.

Lemma 9.2 (Ideal Test 14.1.2). A nonempty subset I ⊆ R is an ideal if:

1. a − b ∈ I for all a, b ∈ I,

2. ra, ar ∈ I for all r ∈ R, a ∈ I.

Definition 9.3 (Principal Ideal 14.1.3). Let R be a commutative ring with unity.

⟨a⟩ = {ra | r ∈ R}.

More generally,
⟨a1 , . . . , an ⟩ = {r1 a1 + · · · + rn an | ri ∈ R}.

Theorem 9.4 (Theorem 14.2.1). If I is an ideal of R, then R/I is a ring under coset
addition and multiplication, called the quotient ring.

9
Theorem 9.5 (Theorem 14.2.2). If R/A is a ring under coset operations, then A is an ideal
of R.

Definition 9.6 (Prime and Maximal Ideals 14.3.1). Let I be a proper ideal of a commutative
ring R.

• I is prime if ab ∈ I implies a ∈ I or b ∈ I.

• I is maximal if I ⊆ J ⊆ R implies J = I or J = R.

Lemma 9.7 (Lemma 14.3.2). The ideal ⟨x2 + 1⟩ is maximal in R[x].

Theorem 9.8 (Theorem 14.3.3). R/I is an integral domain if and only if I is prime.

Theorem 9.9 (Theorem 14.3.4). R/I is a field if and only if I is maximal.

Corollary 9.10 (Corollary 14.3.5). Every maximal ideal is prime.

10