Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Course No: EEE 1253

Course Title: Electrical Machine

Topic : Alternators

Course Teacher
Rubaeat Ahammed
Lecturer, Dept. of ETE
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Reference Books

(i) A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol - 2 ( AC & DC Machines ) by B. L. Theraja

(ii) Principles Of Electrical Machine by V.K. Mehta & Rohit Mehta

(iii) Direct and Alternating Current Machinery by Rosenblatt

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Basic Principle
A.C. generators or alternators (as they are usually called) operate
on the same fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction
as d.c. generators. They also consist of an armature winding
and a magnetic field. But there is one important difference
between the two. Whereas in d.c. generators, the armature rotates
and the field system is stationary, the arrangement in alternators
is just the reverse of it. In their case, standard construction
consists of armature winding mounted on a stationary element
called stator and field windings on a rotating element called rotor.

The stator of an alternator consists of a cast-iron frame that supports the armature core, which has slots on its inner
periphery to house the armature conductors. The rotor acts like a flywheel and has alternating north (N) and south
(S) magnetic poles fixed around its outer rim. These poles are magnetized using direct current, typically
supplied by a small d.c. shunt generator mounted on the same shaft as the alternator. This excitation current
is delivered through slip-rings and brushes; however, modern systems often use brushless excitation, where a
three-phase a.c. exciter and rectifiers provide d.c. without the need for brushes or slip-rings.

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Basic Principle
As the rotor turns, the rotating magnetic field cuts the stationary stator conductors, inducing an electromotive
force (e.m.f.) in them. Due to the alternating N and S poles, the direction of induced current reverses periodically,
generating alternating current (a.c.). The frequency of this e.m.f. depends on the number of poles and the rotor
speed, and its direction is determined by Fleming’s Right-hand Rule.

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Construction of Alternator

1. Stator (Stationary Armature)

•Frame: Cast-iron or fabricated mild steel structure supporting the core; allows ventilation.
•Core: Built with laminated magnetic steel to reduce eddy current losses. Slots on the inner periphery house the
armature windings.

•Advantages of Stationary Armature:

• Direct high-voltage output without brushes.
• Easier insulation for high voltages (up to 30kV).
• Slip-rings only for low-power field circuit.
• Better mechanical support against stresses.

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Construction of Alternator
2. Rotor (Rotating Magnetic Field)

(i) Salient Pole Type:

• Used in low to medium-speed alternators (≤1200
RPM).(Construction of salient type rotor is not strong, enough
to withstand mechanical stresses. The rotor would cause
excessive windage losses if driven at high speed.)
• Large diameter, short axial length.
• Laminated projecting poles with field windings.

(ii) Smooth Cylindrical Type:

• Used in high-speed turbo-generators (≥1800 RPM).
• Solid forged cylinder with milled slots for field coils.
• Small diameter, long axial length.
• Offers better balance, low windage loss, and smooth
operation. Air gap between stator and rotor is uniform in case
of cylindrical rotor due to which its operation is
smooth and less noisy.

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Damper Windings
Copper bars placed in slots on the pole-shoes and short-circuited at both
ends by copper rings ( like a squirrel cage ).

Purpose:
➢ Prevents hunting (small speed fluctuations during load changes).
When the alternator rotor oscillates (hunts) due to load changes, the
swinging rotor cuts through the magnetic field. This induces currents
(called eddy currents) in the damper windings. These currents oppose
the motion of the rotor (by Lenz's Law).This opposing force slows
down the oscillation.
➢ Provides starting torque in synchronous motors.
➢ Helps maintain voltage balance during unbalanced loads.

Under normal operation (at synchronous speed), damper winding does not carry current.

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A.C. Armature Windings

Concentrated winding coils are wrapped around a single stator tooth, making the design compact, cost-
effective, and efficient due to reduced copper losses. However, it produces a trapezoidal back-EMF, leading to
higher torque ripple, vibration, and noise—less ideal for smooth or quiet applications.

Distributed winding spreads coils across multiple slots, creating a uniform magnetic field and a sinusoidal
back-EMF. This results in smoother torque, quieter operation, and better heat distribution. Though more complex
and copper-intensive, it offers superior performance for precision applications like EVs and industrial motors.

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 A.C. Armature Windings
A.C. armature windings are always of the nonsalient-pole type and are usually symmetrically distributed in slots
around the complete circumference of the armature. A.C. armature windings are generally open-circuit type i.e., both
ends are brought out. The following are the general features of a.c. armature windings:

(i) A.C. armature windings are generally distributed windings i.e., they are symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete
circumference of the armature. A distributed winding has two principal advantages. First, a distributed winding generates a
voltage wave that is nearly a sine curve. Secondly, copper is evenly distributed on the armature surface. Therefore, heating is more
uniform and this type of winding is more easily cooled.
(ii) A.C. armature windings may use full-pitch coils or fractional-pitch coils. A coil with a span of 180° electrical is called a full-
pitch coil. In this case, the two sides of the coil occupy identical positions under adjacent opposite poles and the e.m.f. generated
in the coil is maximum. A coil with a span of less than 180° electrical is called a fractional-pitch coil. For example, a coil with
a span of 150° electrical would be called a 5/6 pitch coil. Although e.m.f. induced in a fractional-pitch coil is less than that of a
full-pitch coil, fractional-pitch coils are frequently used in a.c. machines for two main reasons. First, less copper is required per
coil and secondly the waveform of the generated voltage is improved.
(iii) Most of a.c. machines use double layer armature windings. In a double layer winding, one coil side lies in the upper half of
one slot while the other coil side lies in the lower half of another slot spaced about one-pole pitch from the first one. This
arrangement permits simpler end connections and it is economical to manufacture.
(iv) Since most of a.c. machines are of 3-phase type, the three windings of the three phases are identical but spaced 120° electrical
degrees apart.
(v) A group of adjacent slots belonging to one phase under one pole pair is known as phase belt. The angle subtended by a
phase belt is known as phase spread. The 3-phase windings are always designed for 60° phase spread.

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 Distribution Factor
The distribution and pitching of the coils affect the voltages induced in the coils. We shall discuss two winding factors:
(i) Distribution factor (Kd), also called breadth factor
(ii) Pitch factor (Kp), also known as chord factor

Distribution factor (Kd)

A winding with only one slot per pole per phase is called a concentrated winding. In this type of winding, the e.m.f.
generated/phase is equal to the arithmetic sum of the individual coil e.m.f.s in that phase. However, if the coils/phase
are distributed over several slots in space (distributed winding), the e.m.f.s in the coils are not in phase (i.e., phase
difference is not zero) but are displaced from each by the slot angle a (The angular displacement in electrical agrees
between the adjacent slots is called slot angle). The e.m.f./phase will be the phasor sum of coil e.m.f.s. The distribution
factor Kd is defined as:

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Distribution Factor
The three coil e.m.f.s are shown as phasors AB, BC and CD each of which is a chord of circle with
centre at O and subtends an angle a at O. The phasor sum of the coil e.m.f.s subtends an angle n a at O.
Draw perpendicular bisectors of each chord such as Ox, Oy etc.

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 Pitch Factor
Pitch factor (Kp)
A coil whose sides are separated by one pole pitch (i.e., coil span is 180 electrical) is called a full-pitch coil.
With a full-pitch coil, the e.m.f.s induced in the two coil sides a in phase with each other and the resultant e.m.f.
is the arithmetic sum of individual [Link]. However the waveform of the resultant e.m.f. can be improved by
making the coil pitch less than a pole pitch. Such a coil is called short-pitch coil. This practice is only possible
with double-layer type of winding The e.m.f. induced in a short-pitch coil is less than that of a full-pitch coil. The
factor by which e.m.f. per coil is reduced is called pitch factor Kp . It is defined as:

Consider a coil AB which is short-pitch by an angle b electrical degrees as shown in Fig. (10.8). The e.m.f.s
generated in the coil sides A and B differ in phase by an angle b and can be represented by phasors EA and EB
respectively as shown in Fig. (10.9). The diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant e.m.f. ER of the coil.

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Pitch Factor

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EMF Equation
𝑍 = No. of conductors or coil sides in series/phase
= 2𝑇 − where 𝑇 is the No. of coils or turns per phase
𝑃 = No. of poles
𝑓 = frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Φ = flux/pole in webers
sin⁡𝑚𝛽/2
𝑘𝑑 = distribution factor =
𝑚sin⁡𝛽/2
𝑘𝑐 or 𝑘𝑝 = pitch or coil span factor = cos⁡𝛼/2
𝑘𝑓 = from factor = 1.11 − if e.m.f. is assumed sinusoidal
𝑁 = rotor r.p.m.
In one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60./𝑁 second) each stator conductor is cut by a flux of Φ𝑃 webers.
∴ 𝑑Φ = Φ𝑃 and 𝑑𝑡 = 60/𝑁 second
𝑑Φ Φ𝑃 Φ𝑁𝑃
∴ Average e.m.f. induced per conductor = = 60/𝑁 =
𝑑𝑡 60

Now, we know that 𝑓 = PN/120 or 𝑁 = 120𝑓/𝑃

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 EMF Equation
Substituting this value of 𝑁 above, we get
Φ𝑃 120𝑓
Average e.m.f. per conductor = × = 2𝑓Φ volt
60 𝑃

If there are 𝑍 conductors in series/phase, then Average e.m.f./phase=2f Φ𝑍 volt = 4𝑓Φ𝑇 volt
R.M.S. value of e.m.f/phase = 1.11 × 4𝑓Φ𝑇 = 4.44𝑓Φ𝑇 volt.

This would have been the actual value of the induced voltage if all the coils in a phase were
(i) full-pitched and
(ii) concentrated or bunched in one slot (instead of being distributed in several slots under poles).
But this not being so, the actually available voltage is reduced in the ratio of these two factors.

∴ Actually available voltage / phase = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒌𝒄 𝒌𝒅 𝒇𝜱𝑻 = 𝟒𝒌𝒇 𝒌𝒄 𝒌𝒅 𝒇𝜱𝑻 Volt.

If the alternator is star-connected (as is usually the case) then the line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage (as
found from the above formula).

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 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-
load (the speed and field excitation being constant) divided by full-load voltage.
𝐍𝐨 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 − 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞
% Voltage regulation = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑬𝟎 −𝑽
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽

Note that 𝐸0 − 𝑉 is the arithmetic difference and not the phasor difference. The factors affecting the voltage
regulation of an alternator are:

(i) 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 drop in armature winding

(ii) 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝐿 drop in armature winding
(iii) Voltage change due to armature reaction

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Determination of Voltage Regulation
The kVA ratings of commercial alternators are very high (e.g. 500 MVA). It is neither convenient nor practicable to
determine the voltage regulation by direct loading. There are several indirect methods of determining the voltage
regulation of an alternator. These methods require only a small amount of power as compared to the power required
for direct loading method. Two such methods are:

1. Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method

2. Ampere-turn or MMF turn method

For either method, the following data are required:

(i) Armature resistance

(ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)
(iii) Short-Circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)

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 Determination of Voltage Regulation
(i) Armature resistance
The armature resistance Ra per phase is determined by using direct current and the voltmeter-ammeter method. This is
the d.c. value. The effective armature resistance (a.c. resistance) is greater than this value due to skin effect. It is a usual
practice to take the effective resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra = 1.5 Rdc).

(ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C)

Like the magnetization curve for a d.c. machine, the (Open-
circuit characteristic of an alternator is the curve between
armature terminal voltage (phase value) on open circuit and the
field current when the alternator is running at rated speed.
Fig.a shows the circuit for determining the O.C.C. of an
alternator. The alternator is run on no-load at the rated speed.
The field current If is gradually increased from zero (by
adjusting field rheostat) until open-circuit voltage E0 (phase
value) is about 50% greater than the rated phase voltage. The Fig. a Fig. b
graph is drawn between open-circuit voltage values and the
corresponding values of If as shown in Fig. b .

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 Determination of Voltage Regulation
(iii) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)
In a short-circuit test, the alternator is run at rated speed and the
armature terminals are short-circuited through identical ammeters
Fig. a. Only one ammeter need be read; but three are used for
balance. The field current If is gradually increased from zero until
the short-circuit armature current ISC is about twice the rated
current. The graph between short-circuit armature current and field
current gives the short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.) as shown in
Fig. b.
There is no need to take more than one reading because S.C.C. is a
straight line passing through the origin. The reason is simple. Since Fig. a Fig. b
armature resistance is much smaller than the synchronous reactance,
the short-circuit armature current lags the induced voltage by very
nearly 90°. Consequently, the armature flux and field flux are in
direct opposition and the resultant flux is small. Since the resultant
flux is small, the saturation effects will be negligible and the short
circuit armature current, therefore, is directly proportional to the
field current over the range from zero to well above the rated
armature current.
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 Synchronous Impedance Method
In this method of finding the voltage regulation of an alternator, we find the
synchronous impedance Zs (and hence synchronous reactance Xs) of the
alternator from the O.C.C. and S.S.C. For this reason, it is called synchronous
impedance method. The method involves the following steps:
(i) Plot the O.C.C. and S.S.C. on the same field current base as shown in Fig. a .
(ii) Consider a field current If. The open-circuit voltage corresponding to this
field current is E1. The short-circuit armature current corresponding to field
current If is I1. On short-circuit p.d. = 0 and voltage E1 is being used to circulate
the snort-circuit armature current I1 against the synchronous impedance Zs. This
Fig. a
is illustrated in Fig. b.
𝐸1 ( Open − circuit )
∴ 𝐸1 = 𝐼1 𝑍s or 𝑍s =
𝐼1 ( Short − circuit )

Note that 𝐸1 is the phase value and so is 𝐼1 .

(iii) The armature resistance can be found as explained earlier.

∴ Synchronous reactance, XS = ZS2 − R22 Fig. b

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Synchronous Impedance Method
(iv) Once we know Ra and Xs, the phasor diagram can be drawn for any load and
any p.f. Fig.c shows the phasor diagram for the usual case of inductive load; the
load p.f. being cos f lagging. Note that in drawing the phasor diagram, current Ia
has been taken as the reference phasor. The IaRa drop is in phase with Ia while IaXs
drop leads Ia by 90°. The phasor sum of V, IaRa and IaXs gives the no-load e.m.f. E0.

Fig. c

𝑬𝟎 = 𝐕𝐜𝐨 𝐬 φ + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝟐 + 𝑽𝐬𝐢 𝐧 φ + 𝑰𝒂 𝑿𝑺 𝟐

E0 −V
∴ % voltage regulation = × 100
V

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Numerical Problems
Example from ROSENBLATT

19.4, 19.5, 19.6, 19.9, 19.10, 19.11, 19.12 , 19.13

* practice similar numerical problems for better understanding.

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