SCIENCE 10

THIRD
QUARTER
GRADE 10 SY 2025-2026
ROLES OF HORMONES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• System that contains a group of glands that release hormones
• Controls and regulates body processes
• Essential in regulating the growth, development, metabolism, reproductive pro-
cesses and mood
• Signals all over the body
GLANDS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Hypothalamus
• "Master of the Master Gland"
• Main job is to keep the body in a stable state call "Homeostasis"
• Receives chemical messages from nerve cells in the brain and from nerve cells in
the body (peripheral nervous system), which is also responding to signals outside
the body
LOCATION: below the thalamus,
above pituitary gland, sits directly above the brainstem at the base of the brain
HORMONES RELEASED (to anterior
pituitary):
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnR)
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
Dopamines (inhibition)

HORMONES RELEASED (to posterior pituitary):

Oxytocin - stimulates uterine muscle contraction, release of breast milk
Vasopressin - "Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)", regulates the control of your body's
water/urine volume and blood pressure
2. Pituitary
• "Master Gland"
• stimulates growth
• controls the function of other glands
• divided into two main sections:
• Anterior Pituitary (front lobe)
• Posterior Pituitary (back lobe)
LOCATION: at the base of the brain
HORMONES RELEASED: Oxytocin
Vasopressin, Growth Hormone (GH),
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - stimulates adrenal glands to produce critical
hormones
Prolactin Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - involved in the sexual development and repro-
duction of both males
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - involved in the sexual development and repro-
duction of both males and females
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - stimulates thyroid glands to produce thyroid
mocqhacake
3. Pineal
• secretes the hormone Melatonin
• help control of the circadian cycle and wakefulness by secreting melatonin
LOCATION: beneath the back
part of the corpus callosum

HORMONE RELEASED: Melatonin -

"Sleep Hormone"
- helps in regulating menstrual
cycle
4. Thyroid
• regulates body metabolism
• causes storage of calcium in bones
LOCATION: below the voicebox
HORMONES RELEASED:
Thyroxine - main hormone secreted into the bloodstream
Calcitonin - lowers and calcium levels in the blood
5. Parathyroid
• controls the calcium levels in the body
• normalizes bone growth
LOCATION: in the neck
HORMONE RELEASED:
Parathyromone/Parathyroid Hormone
(PHT) - secretes PTH which regulates calcium levels
6. Thymus
• enables the body to produce certain antibodies
LOCATION: in front of the heart
HORMONE RELEASED: Thymosin - to
stimulate the production of T Cells
7. Adrenal
• prepares the body for action controls heart rate and breathing in times of emer-
gency
LOCATION: on top of the kidneys

HORMONE RELEASED: Adrenaline -

makes your heart beat faster and your lungs breathe more efficiently
8. Pancreas
• regulates blood sugar levels
LOCATION: between the kidneys
HORMONES RELEASED: Insulin - controls blood sugar levels, helps cells use glucose
for energy
Glucagon - to help regulate blood sugar levels
9. Reproductive Glands
• Male: Testes
* control maturation and male characteristics
LOCATION: lower abdomen
HORMONES RELEASED: Androgen,
Testosterone
• Female: Ovary
* influence female traits, support reproductive function
LOCATION: lower abdomen
HORMONES RELEASED: Estrogen, Progesterone
REMEMBER:
• The Endocrine System consists of glands that secrete chemicals called
"Hormones" to control various body processes.
• This control system usually brings about slow changes in the body because
chemical messengers move more slowly than nerve impulses.
• The major glands in the body are hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
• parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproduction: Biological process of producing offspring.
Sexual Reproduction: Involves sperm and egg from two parents.
Asexual Reproduction: No sexual intercourse required, common in plants.
A
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions: Produces and transports sperm, secretes testosterone.
• Scrotum: Protects and regulates temperature for sperm.
Testis: Produces sperm.
• Epididymis: Stores sperm.
• Urethra: Transports sperm and urine.
• Penis: Delivers sperm into the vagina.
• Glands - provide liquid in which sperm can swim
• Seminal Vesicle - secretes a fluid that makes up most of the components of the
semen
• Prostate Gland - secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is discharged as part
of the semen
• Bulbourethral Gland - secretes a thick and clear music that lubricates and neu-
tralizes any trace of acidic urine in the urethra

B
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions: Produces eggs, receives sperm, supports fetal development.
•
•
Vagina: Receives the penis.
Uterus: Where the egg implants.
Ovary: Produces eggs.
• Oviduct - serves as a passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus; sit of egg
fertilization

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menstrual cycle is the series of monthly changes that take place in the female re-
productive system as it prepares for the possibility of pregnancy. It starts from the
first day of menstruation period until the last day of the next menstrual cycle.
The female reproductive system undergoes a cycle every month from the first onset
which could happen when a female is between 8 to 16 years old. The monthly cycle
continues for about 40 years.
- The different events that take place in the cycle are divided into 4 phases: (1)
Menstruation, (2) Follicular phase, (3)
Ovulation and (4) LOzoi
FOUR PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1. Menstrual Phase (Day 1-5)
- egg from previous cycle is not fertilized
- uterus lining sheds
- blood, mucus, and tissue is released
2. Follicular Phase (Day 1-13)
- overlaps with the menstrual phase
- maturation process

3. Ovulation Phase (Day 14)

- stimulates the release of Luteinizing
Hormone (LH)
- ovary releases the egg
- increase in Estrogen
- usually when pregnancy happens
4. Luteal Phase (Day 15-28)
- Corpus Luteum initiates the release of hormones
SIGNS OF OVULATION
- Rise in basal body temperature by /½ to 1 C.
- Levels of LH are high.
- Cervical mucus may appear clearer, thinner, and stretchy.
- Breast Tenderness.
- Bloating.
- Light Spotting.
- Slight pain or cramping in your side or Mittelschmerz.
Additional Information
• IMPORTANCE
- For conception
- To prevent pregnancy (contraception)
- To be aware of the changes in your body (physically, emotionally)
• DATES
- Safe days
- Days 4-8
- Days 24-28
- Ovulation
- Days 13-16

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
WHAT IS FEEDBACK MECHANISM?
• Most body systems maintain homeostasis (internal balance/equilibrium) by using
feedback mechanism. A feedback mechanism is the process through which the
level of one substance influences the level of another substance. Feedback mech-
anism can be positive or negative feedback.
• The key difference between positive and negative feedback is their response to
change. Positive feedback increases change while negative feedback reduces
 change. Negative feedback will result in less of a product: less heat, less pressure,
or less salt. in positive feedback, the input and output signals are of similar phase
and so the two signals get added. While in negative feedback, the input and out-
put signals are of different phases thus the two are subtracted
GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)
- Produced by the Hypothalamus.
- The instigator for creating Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) in the Pituitary Gland.
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
- Signals the ovaries to create estrogen (estradiol).
- Triggers ovulation (release of the matured egg).
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
- Signals the ovaries to create progesterone.

- Stimulates the growth and maturation of follicles.

- Works with LH to promote estrogen production.
ESTROGEN
- Regulates the menstrual cycle during the Follicular Phase.
- Promotes the growth of the uterine lining (endometrium) during the Follicular
Phase.
- Inhibits the production of FSH and more of LH.
- Promotes female secondary sexual characteristics.
Types of estrogen:
- Estrone (E1): Released after menopause.
- Estradiol (E2): Most common type.
- Estriol (E3): Released in the bloodstream during pregnancy.
PROGESTERONE
- Released in the uterus during the Luteal
- Phase.
- Prepares and maintains the endometrium for a fertilized egg to implant and
grow during the Luteal Phase.
- Drops at the end of the cycle, prompting menstruation.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The command/logistic center of the body.
• Contains (but not limited to) two types of cells:
• Neurons: the main messengers and coordinators of the nervous system.
• Neuroglial: the assistants to the neurons, they guide and protect Neurons.
• Coordinates, relays, processes, and analyzes information from the body to enact a
proper response.

NEURONS
-Non-dividing cells that are central to the communication, sensing, and response of
multicellular organisms.
- Delivers electrical impulses (action potential) through the charge difference of
sodium and calcium ions present in the structure.
- Delivers action potentials at a typical speed of 1-100 m/s.
TYPES INTERNEURONS
-Act as the messengers of electrical signals from the sensory organs to the central
nervous system and from the central nervous system to motor neurons.
SENSORY NEURONS
- Present in sensory systems such as the vestibulocochlear, integumentary, etc.
MOTOR NEURONS
- Typically found in the muscles, act as actuators for movement/muscle contraction
and relaxation.
PARTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system
• Consists of 2 main components:
nacaxe
a. Brain - An organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distribu-
tor of information for the body
PARTS OF BRAIN
• Cerebrum - Large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought

• Cerebellum - Part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordi-
nation.
• Brain Stem - Part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls auto-
matic functions (breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure.)
b. Spinal Cord
• Serves as the channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body
• Controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs
• Has two main divisions:
a. Somatic Nervous System
• Associated with the voluntary control of body movements

PARTS OF SOMATIC N.S

• Spinal Nerves - the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the
spinal cord and the body
• Cranial Nerves - the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain
stem
b. Autonomic Nervous System

• This system is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and has
two subdivisions:
PARTS OF AUTONOMIC N.S
• Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. (e.g., in-
creased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil sweating, etc.)
• Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or
relaxed mode.
THE NERVE CELL
• The basic unit of the nervous system
• are also called neurons.
• There are twelve to fourteen billions of neurons in one part of the brain alone.

neuron has:
• Cell body - contains the nucleus.
• Dendrites - carry impulses towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as
200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body. A single dendrite can be
over one meter long.

• Axons - carry impulses away from the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the den-
drites of other neurons or the cell body of muscle cells. Axons can be grouped to-
gether into cable-like bundles called nerves.
DNA STRUCTURE

AT
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
→
• Blueprints of life
→ Proven by British medical officer
Frederick Griffith in 1928
→ Utilised Streptococcus pneumoniae
→ Mixed pathogenic cells with dead non-pathogenic remains, the non-pathogenic
cells become pathogenic
→
• Made of a backbone made of alternating sugar and phosphate groups
→ Made of pairs of nucleotide bases
→ Divided into segments called genes
NUCLEOTIDES BASES
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C)
- Purines: Adenine and Guanine
- Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine
DNA VS. RNA
• There are two genetic materials in living things: Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA). The DNA and RNA is composed of a building
block called nucleotide.
• The DNA is a double helix molecule while RNA is single stranded. DNA has

deoxyribose sugar
• while RNA has
ribose sugar.
• The nitrogen bases of DNA are:
Guanine(G) which pair with Cytosine
(C), Adenine (A) which pair with Thymine (T).
• On the other hand, RNA has the following nitrogen bases: Guanine (G) which
pairs with Cytosine (C), Adenine
(A) which pair with Uracil (U).
• DNA is located inside the nucleus of the cell whose main function is the transmis-
sion of genetic information.
• RNA is found in the nucleus, cytoplasm and ribosome.
AT
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
→
• Blueprints of life
→ Proven by British medical officer
Frederick Griffith in 1928
→ Utilised Streptococcus pneumoniae
→ Mixed pathogenic cells with dead non-pathogenic remains, the non-pathogenic
cells become pathogenic
→
• Made of a backbone made of alternating sugar and phosphate groups
→ Made of pairs of nucleotide bases
→ Divided into segments called genes
NUCLEOTIDES BASES
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C)
- Purines: Adenine and Guanine
- Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine
DNA VS. RNA
• There are two genetic materials in living things: Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA). The DNA and RNA is composed of a building
block called nucleotide.
• The DNA is a double helix molecule while RNA is single stranded. DNA has
DNA REPLICATION
DNA Replication - DNA Replicates to create a strand that is complementary to the
original strand. It is semi-conservative meaning, each of the two daughter DNA has
a strand that came from the parent DNA
REPLICATION PATTERN
Proven by Matthew Meselson and
Franklin Stahl
- Cultured [Link] in N-15 (Heavy
Nitrogen Isotope) and transferred them to N-14 (Lighter Nitrogen
Isotope)
WHY DNA REPLICATES
- Growth
- Repair
- Reproduction
PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION
DNA Helicase - Unwinds the DNA into two strands of RNA
- A zipper RNA Primase - Adds primers (Nucleotide bases) that initiate

replication DNA Polymerase III - Adds nucleotides bases along the primers
- Only builds from 5' to 3'
- Leading strand is 5' to 3'
- Lagging strand is 3' to 5'
Leading Strand - 5' to 3'
-Continuous strand. Only break is between the first primer and the added nucleo-
tides.
- Progresses towards the replication fork.
Lagging Strand - 3' to 5'
- Broken strands. Broken segments called Okazaki fragments.
- Progresses away from the replication fork.
Topoisomerase - Relieves the strain caused by unwinding
DNA Polymerase I - Replaces the RNA
Primers with DNA Nucleotides
DNA Ligase - Connects broken strands between the primers and nucleotides
- A Glue Single-strand binding protein - Stabilizes and keeps the DNA strands sepa-
rated
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
• Has a single (1) strand
• Found in the cytoplasm
• Type of sugar is ribose
• 3 types of RNA:
1. mRNA (Messenger RNA) - brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to
the cytoplasm
2. rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) - serves as the site of attachment for the other rna

3. tRNA (Transfer RNA) - brings the amino acids in the cytoplasm to the ribosome to
make proteins
Amino Acid
• The building blocks of a protein molecule
Protein Synthesis
• Process of making proteins
• Transcription
• mRNA links to ribosome
• tRNA - amino acids link to
MRNA
• Amino acid separate from tRNA
• Polypeptide chain assembled
• Stop codon encountered in mRNA
Transcription
• Process of copying DNA sequence into
RNA
• Occurs in the Nucleus
DNA -> MRNA
• RNA Polymerase - connects the complementary bases to form a single stranded
mRNA
• mRNA - travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, then binds to the ribosomes
Translation
• Process of converting information in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in a
protein
• Occurs in the CytolSmocghacake
• mRNA -> tRNA -> Amino Acid
• tRNA
• carries an amino acid
- Amino Acid - the monomer of a protein
• brings the amino acids together to form the protein
• Codon - a set of three (3) nitrogenous bases that represent an amino acid

• Anticodon - the complement of mRNA, found in the tRA

• Peptide Bonds - holds the amino acids together
• Polypeptides - a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
GENETIC CODE TABLE
Start Codon
• AUG
Stop Codons
• UAA
• UAG
• UGA

MUTATIONS
• Mutation = a permanent change in the
DNA nucleotide sequence. types-of-mutations (1)
• Mutations can be somatic (in body cells - not inherited) or
germline/gametic (in eggs/sperm - can be inherited). types-of-mutations (1)

• Most mutations are neutral; some are harmful (disease) and some beneficial (e.g.,
malaria resistance)
2) Two main categories
A. Chromosome mutations (affect structure or number of chromosomes)
Five key types: Deletion, Inversion, Translocation, Duplication, Nondisjunction.
types-of-mutations (1)
• Deletion - chunk of chromosome is lost (e.g., Cri-du-chat: deletion on chromo-
some 5).
• Duplication - a segment is repeated.
• Inversion - segment breaks off, reverses orientation, reattaches.
• Translocation - part of one (nonhomologous) chromosome attaches to another.
• Nondisjunction - failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis → gametes
with too many or too few (causes aneuploidies)

Important syndromes from chromosomal changes:

• Down syndrome = Trisomy 21(47 chromosomes).

• Edwards syndrome = Trisomy 18(47, +18).

• Patau syndrome = Trisomy 13(47, +13).
• Cri-du-chat = deletion on chromosome 5.
• Klinefelter (47, XXY), Turner (XO), XYY, Trisomy X (XXX) - sex chromosome aneu-
ploidies.
Consequences of coding-region point mutations:
1. No effect (synonymous codon).
2. Different amino acid (missense) - effect ranges from benign to disease-caus-
ing.
3. Stop codon created (nonsense) →
truncated protein.
B. Gene (point) mutations (affect nucleotide sequence of a gene)
Main types: Point mutations (substitution), Insertions, Deletions, Frameshift, Silent
mutations.
• Point (substitution) - single nucleotide changed. Example: sickle cell anemia
caused by a single base substitution in hemoglobin gene.
• Insertion - extra nucleotide(s) added.
• Deletion (gene level) - nucleotide(s)
removed.
• Frameshift - insertions/deletions not in multiples of 3 shift reading frame → usu-
ally severe. (Use sentence analogy:
 Original: The fat cat ate the wee rat.
Frame Shift ("a" added): The fat caa tet hew eer at.
• Silent mutation - codon changes but still codes for same amino acid → no change
in protein.

Consequences of coding-region point mutations:

1. No effect (synonymous codon).
2. Different amino acid (missense) - effect ranges from benign to disease-caus-
ing.
3. Stop codon created (nonsense) →
truncated protein.

EVOLUTION
• Evolution is the process by which organisms change over time. This process takes
hundreds or even thousands of years to develop.
> Biogeography - Study of where organisms live now and where they and their an-
cestors lived in the past.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- Parts of the body that are not being used are discarded.
- Parts of the body that are often being used are improved.
- Ex. Giraffes developed longer necks over time

• Theory of Need
• Organisms, change in response to their environment that helped them develop
characteristics necessary for them to adapt and survive.
• Theory of Use and Disuse
• Organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will develop. If you don't use
it, you will lose it.
• Theory of Acquired Characteristics
• The acquired characteristics were inherited by the offsprings and propagated to
the next generation.

FATHER OF EVOLUTION AND HIS THEORIES

Charles Darwin
- Father of Evolution
- Developed the fundamentals of Evolution Whilst aboard HMS Beagle, he ob-
served the following:
I. Species Vary Globally
- Similar animals inhabited ecologically similar habitats around the world.
- Ex. Emus (Australia), Ostriches (Africa),
Rhea (South America)
II. Species Vary Locally
- Similar animals that are closely related are found in different habitats around a
local area.
- Some species adapted to the habitat in the local areas they inhabit.
- Ex. There are dozens of species of Galápagos finches that all look
similar but have a striking difference in their beaks of which were adapted to their
diet.
III. Species Vary Over Time
- Fossils of extinct species were similar to some living species.
- Ex. Glyptodon (3 m long) vs. Armadillo (0.5 m long)
Evolution by Natural Selection
I. The Struggle for Existence
- More individuals in a population results in competition for food, living space, etc.
- Thus calling this the struggle for existence.
II. Variation and Adaptation
- Organisms who mutated to have better body parts/adaptations are
able to survive and reproduce better.

III. Survival of the Fittest Fitness

- How well an organism can survive and reproduce in its environment
- Weaker organisms (Who are less adapted and have weaker survival traits) die o
while Stronger organisms (Who are more adapted and have better survival traits)
survive and thrive.