DNS – Ship Construction
Cleating Arrangements For The Hatch Covers
Modern steel hatch covers are fitted to cover the hatch openings. They consists of plates
stiffened by webs or stiffeners. Securing cleats and cross joint wedges, together with suitable
jointing material are fitted. The cleats are fitted to ensure proper securing with a minimum of 2
cleats per panel at each side. (The cross joints, where fitted are spaced 1.5m apart.)
Modern hatch covers open in the transverse direction, though sometimes they may open fore
and aft. They are usually hydraulically operated. There are roller wheels on the fore and aft end
of each hatch cover panel. The roller wheels move along a trackway on the hatch coaming, and
slide the panels open or shut.
There is a jacking arrangement to lift the hatch covers before opening, and, to lower them when
securing shut. The 'compression bar' is extruded on the surface of the hatch coaming. The
underside of the hatch cover panel has a recess along the rim. A rubber packing sits in this
groove. The compression bar presses into the packing when the hatch cover is shut, forming a
weathertight seal. Load bearing pads are fitted in multiple locations around the hatch cover.
These structures transfer the weight of the hatch covers to the hatch coaming and the deck.
They also prevent lateral movement of the hatch covers.
Draw A Sketch Of A Typical Forecastle Mooring And Anchoring Arrangements (Hawse Pipe,
Spurling Pipe, Cable Stopper, Bitter End, Chain Locker), Showing The Leads Of Moorings
Sketch an anchoring arrangement from Anchor to Chain locker and
write point wise short notes on every component of the
arrangement.
Chain locker: A chain locker is a small compartment located under the windlass. This is a
place forward of the collision bulkhead below the main deck storing or securing the anchor
chain cables. Both port and aft anchor chains are stored separately in the different
subsections of the locker or in port and starboard chain lockers.
Spurling Pipe: It is a pipe through which the anchor chain passes on to the chain locker.
Windlass: A type of winch that allows the anchor to be raised or lowered.
Cable stopper: Also called as a bow stopper. Its purpose is to take load of the anchor cable
off the windlass when the vessel is at anchorage. It is also used to secure the anchor
when at sea.
Hawse pipe: Hawse Pipes provide a passage for the anchor and anchor cable to be led
outboard. The hawse pipe is a tube which leads from the forecastle deck, and opens at the
side shell. It usually passes through the Forecastle store.
Sketch and label the anchoring arrangement on the forecastle
Deck? Label at least 10 items?
Sketch and label the Bitter End connection of the anchor cable?
Write a short note on hawse pipe
Hawse Pipes provide a passage for the anchor and anchor cable to be led outboard.
The hawse pipe is a tube which leads from the forecastle deck, and opens at the
side shell. It usually passes through the Forecastle store.
Hawse pipes are reinforced with chafing flanges to resist wear and tear.
A system of pipes called the anchor wash is fitted into the hawse pipe, to provide a
stream of water which washes any mud brought up by the cable.
On deck, the opening of the hawse pipe is closed with the help of a perforated steel
cover. This prevents stowaways from boarding.
Leads of moorings
Mooring Arrangements consist of a set of ropes or wires for mooring the ship. The direction of
the moorings determine their purpose.
a) Headlines — Headlines typically lead 30 to 45 degrees on the bow. They help in moving the
ship forward as well as bringing the bow towards the jetty.
b) Breastlines — Breastlines lead as close athwartship as possible. Their purpose is to keep the
vessel alongside.
c) Forward Springs — Forward springs lead as near astern as possible. Their purpose is to
prevent surging of the vessel.
Describe The Bilge Piping System Of A Cargo Ship - Describe That
Each Section Is Fitted With A Screw-Down Non Return Suction
Valve.
Cargo ships have at least two power-driven bilge pumping units in the machinery space
connected to the main bilge line, and passenger ships have at least three.
In passenger ships the power-driven bilge pumps are, where practicable, placed in
separate watertight compartments, so that all three are not easily flooded by the same
damage. Where the passenger ship has a length in excess of 91.5 m it is a requirement
that at least one of these pumps will always be serviceable in reasonable damage
situations. A submersible pump may be supplied with its source of power above the
bulkhead deck. Alternatively, the pumps are so distributed throughout the length of the ship
that it is inconceivable that one might not be able to work in the event of reasonable
damage.
Suction connections are led to each hold or compartment from the main bilge line. Valves
are introduced to prevent one watertight compartment from being placed in direct
communication with another, and to prevent dry cargo spaces and machinery spaces
being placed in direct communication with tanks or pumps having sea inlets. These screw-
down nonreturn valves are often provided in a bilge valve distribution chest, or may be
fitted directly in the connections to the bilge main. The bilge pipes that are used to drain
cargo and machinery spaces are kept separate from the sea inlet pipes and ballast pipes,
which are used for filling or emptying tanks where the water and oil are carried. Often a
separate ‘dirty ballast’ system is arranged to overcome this problem.
If possible, the bilge pipes are kept out of the double-bottom tanks, and in way of a deep
tank are led through a pipe tunnel. If the peaks are used as tanks then a power pump
suction is led to each peak. Only two pipes are permitted to pass through the collision
bulkhead below the bulkhead deck and a screw-down valve operated from above the
bulkhead deck is provided for each pipe in a chest on the forward side of the bulkhead. An
indicator is provided to show at the valve operating position whether it is open or closed.
Bilge and ballast piping may be of cast or wrought iron, steel, copper, or other approved
materials. Lead or other heat-sensitive materials are not permitted. The piping is fitted in
lengths that are adequately supported and have flanged connections, provision being made for
expansion in each range of pipes.
Function of bilges:
To pump out water accumulated in hold compartments and other similar spaces, like engine
room, pump room etc. in case of:
Carriage of cargo with high water content like rice which has been freshly harvested, potatoes
etc. when water tends to accumulate at 'the bottom of the hold and damage the cargo. Water
may also accumulate due to cargo or ship' s sweat. Some cargoes Iike iron swarf need to be
continuously cooled due internal heat generated by 'the cargo itself etc-
Fire in a hold or compartment, when water is used as the extinguishing agent;
Bilging after a collision or grounding or in the case of failure of structure
Why is Each Section of a bilge piping system Fitted With A Screw-
Down Non Return Suction Valve.
- To prevent one watertight compartment from being placed in direct communication with
another,
- To prevent dry cargo spaces and machinery spaces being placed in direct communication with
tanks or pumps having sea inlets
Describe The Arrangement Of A Fire Main And List What Pumps May Be Used To Pressurize
It
The General Service and Fire Pump Supply water to the following:
1. To the fire hose connections in the engine room, main deck, accommodation, shaft tunnel,
steering gear room etc.
2. To the anchor washing at forecastle
3. As driving water for the ejector fitted in the cargo hold bilges
4. Other such as the swimming pool, if fitted.
Emergency fire pump
All cargo ships of 2000 GT and above, and passenger ships of 1000 GT and above must have an
emergency fire pump in a separate space other than the engine room where the main fire
pumps are located.
The emergency fire pump can be driven in two ways:
1 Using a diesel engine
2. Using an electrical motor supplied from the emergency generator
The emergency fire pump must be provided with its independent suction arrangement and the
total suction head should not exceed 4.5 meters under all conditions of list or trim.
The emergency fire pump capacity to be at least 25m3/hr delivering two and half inches bore jet
of water having a horizontal throw not less than 40 ft
For engine driven pump, the fuel tank capacity should be such that the engine can run the pump
at its full load for at least 3 hrs. A separate reserve fuel tank to be provided outside the engine
room machinery space.
The prime mover engine should be of manual/ battery/ hydraulic start type which can be started
and operated by one man.
The pumps used are generally of the centrifugal type, however, some ships employ positive
displacement pumps, provided they meet with the discharge requirements.
What is an International shore connection? What is its use? Sketch
one showing its specifications.
The International Shore Connection is a universal hose connection that is to be provided on all
ships as per the IMO SOLAS requirement. The purpose of the International Shore Coupling is to
keep a standby hose attachment to get a connection from shore or from other ships for
shipboard fire fighting, in case there is a total failure of pumps onboard.
The international shore coupling SOLAS requirement; ships above 500 tons gross tonnage and
upwards must have at least one international shore connection. The international shore
connection flange has a standard size and is same for all the countries and ships to ensure that
if the ship faces an emergency out of the home port, fire fighting assistance from any port is
always available.
Sketch And Label Air Pipes To Ballast Tanks / Fuel Oil Tanks
Refer class notes
Write short note on air pipes
Air pipes are provided for all tanks to prevent air being trapped under pressure in the tank
when it is filled, or a vacuum being created when it is emptied. The air pipes may be fitted
at the opposite end of the tank to the filling pipe and/or at the highest point of the tank.
Each air pipe from a double-bottom tank, deep tanks that extend to the ship’s side, or any
tank that may be run up from the sea, is led up above the bulkhead deck. From oil fuel and
cargo oil tanks, cofferdams, and all tanks that can be pumped up, the air pipes are led to
an open deck, in a position where no danger will result from leaking oil or vapours. The
heights above decks and closing arrangements are covered by the Load Line Conditions
of Assignment
Why are the air pipes fitted in the tanks?
Air pipes are provided for all tanks to prevent air being trapped under pressure in the tank when
it is filled, or a vacuum being created when it is emptied.
Describe The Use Of Save-All And Drip Trays.
Save-alls and drip trays are containment devices used to collect spillage. The purpose is to
prevent run off and pollution. Save-alls are box shaped containers used around air pipes and
venilators to oil tanks such as fuel oil, lube oil, etc. Save-alls have a plug at the bottom, to drain
any rain or sea water from spray that might accumulate.
Drip trays are box shaped trays fixed (temporarily or permanently) under hose connections
such as bunker or cargo hose manifold, sewage hose manifold, sludge discharge hose manifold
etc. Drip trays have a piping and pumping arrangement so that the spill can be transferred to a
safe containment tank.
Why use a spill or drip tray?
1) Protect workers and the environment from incidental spills, leaks and drips by safely storing
and handling drums, containers, tanks, machinery and equipment in the workplace.
2) These spill trays capture liquids so slips and falls do not occur as a result of a slippery
surface.
3) The environment is protected from contamination and the trays prevent spilled liquids
running off to sea.
Define Terms Shear Force (SF) And Bending Moments (BM)
Shear Force When a ship is floating in water there is a tendency for some parts to be pushed
upwards and for other parts to move downwards, this tendency is termed shearing. The shear
force at a point is the vertical force at that point. The shear force at a point may also be defined
as being the total load on either the left hand side or the right hand side of the point: load being
defined as the difference between the downward and upward forces.
Bending Moment Due to shearing forces, a ship would have a tendency to bend and the
bending moment measures this tendency. Its size depends on the amount of the load as well as
how the load is placed together.
Hogging and sagging - Describe The Loading Conditions and Sea
condition Which Give Rise To Hogging And Sagging Stresses
— In waves, the distribution of buoyancy changes, especially in head seas and following
seas.
— This is most apparent when the wave length is same or similar to the ship length.
— When the peaks are at the bow and stern, and the trough at amidships, the buoyancy
force is shifted to the ends of the vessel.
— The bows are forces upwards by buoyancy, and the amidships is pulled downwards by
gravity.
— This is known as “sagging”.
— When the troughs are at the bow and stern, and the peak at amidships, the buoyancy
force is shifted to the centre of the vessel.
— The amidships is forced upwards by buoyancy, and the bows are pulled downwards by
gravity.
— This is known as “hogging”.
— Hogging and sagging create tension and compression in the keel and the deck.
Sagging
Hogging
Hogging & sagging in still water
— Even in still water, the vessel can be made to hog and sag by the distribution of cargo.
— It is perfectly possible to break a ship in half by careless loading of the components.
— If all the cargo is loaded in the middle of the vessel, then the vessel will sag.
— If all the cargo is loaded in the ends of the vessel, the vessel will hog.
— This creates tension and compression in the vessel in the same way that the waves do.
Sagging
Hogging
Stress due to Torsion on Hull girder
A ship traversing a wave train at an angle will be subject to lighting moments of opposite
directions at its ends. The hull is subject to a twisting moment (torque) and the structure is
in 'torsion'. The greatest effect occurs with decks having large openings. Torsion boxes in
container ships help counter the torsion loads
Describe Qualitatively The Stresses Set Up By Liquid Sloshing In A
Partly Filled Tank
sloshing refers to the dynamic movement of liquid inside partially filled tanks caused by the
motion of the vessel, such as rolling, pitching, or heaving. This movement can generate
significant forces known as sloshing loads, which can affect the structural integrity of the
tank and the ship's stability. The partially filled tanks are called “slack tanks”. Wash
bulkheads or baffles are provided inside tanks to help withstand these sloshing loads.
Describe Racking Stress And Its Causes
When a ship is rolling the accelerations on the ship’s structure are liable to cause distortion
in the transverse section. These stresses are called racking stresses.
The greatest effect is under light ship conditions. Racking stresses are likely to develop
when the ship is experiencing waves on the beam.
Racking stresses mainly affect the corners of the ship, i.e. on the tank ide bracket and beam
knees, which must be made strong enough to resist it. Transverse bulkheads, frames and
web frames provide strength to resist Racking Stresses.
Slamming and parts affected by it
Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole ship is lifted in a seaway may subject the
forefoot region of the ship to severe impact from the sea. The greatest effect is experienced
in the light ship condition. To compensate for this the bottom over 30% forward is
additionally strengthened in ships exceeding 65 m in length and in which the minimum
draught forward is less than 0.045L in any operating condition.
Strengthening arrangements for Pounding
Bottom framed longitudinally
Where the minimum draught forward is less than 0.04L in any operating condition, plate floors
are to be fitted at alternate frames and side girders fitted at a maximum spacing of three times
the floor spacing. If the minimum draught forward is between 0.04L and 0.045L, plate floors are
to be fitted at every third frame and side girders fitted at a maximum spacing of four times the
floor spacing.
Bottom framed transversely
Plate floors are to be fitted at every frame and side girders are to be fitted at a maximum spacing
of three times the floor spacing. Half height side girders are to be provided midway between the
full height side girders.
Panting and list of parts affected by it
Panting refers to a tendency for the shell plating to work “in” and “out” in a rhythmic manner and
is caused by the fluctuating pressures on the hull at the ends when the ship is amongst waves.
These forces are most severe when the vessel is running into waves and is pitching heavily, the
large pressures occurring over a short time cycle.
Strengthening arrangements for Panting
— side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m apart and supported by 'panting beams' fitted
at alternate frames. These 'panting beams' are connected to the frames by brackets and,
if long, supported by a partial wash bulkhead at the centreline; or
— side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m apart and supported by web frames; or
— perforated flats spaced not more than 2.5 m apart. The area of perforations being not
more than 10% of the total area of the flat.
— Abaft the forepeak, panting stringers are fitted in line with each panting stringer or
perforated flat in the forepeak extending back over a distance of 0.15L from forward.
These stringers may be omitted if the side shell plating thickness is increased by 15% for
ships of 150 m in length or less, or 5% for ships of 215 m length or more, with
intermediate length reductions being determined by interpolation.
Stresses Caused By Localized Loading
— Localized heavy weights e.g machinery, or localized loading of heavy cargo e.g. ore may
give rise to localized distortion of the transverse section.
— Arrangements for spreading the load, additional stiffening and thicker plating are
methods used in dealing with this problem.
Loadicator
A loadicator is a computer software that calculates the stability information of the ship.
The hydrostatic particulars of the ship are incorporated in the software. The program then
requires input data such as:
1. Cargo type, weights / volume and density.
2. Ballast volumes and density.
3. Fuel Bunker volumes and density
4. Fresh water and provisions.
5. Weights of Lube oil and stores.
6. Sea water density.
7. Constant; etc.
From the data provided, the loadicator then gives the following data:
1. Shear Force and Bending Moment diagram for sea and harbour conditions.
2. List and trim of the vessel.
3. Hydrostatic drafts of the vessel.
4. GM solid and fluid.
The loadicator can thus be used for:
1) Planning and controlling cargo and ballasting operations.
2) Rapidly calculating SWSF and SWBM for any load condition.
3) Identifying the imposed structural limits which are not to be exceeded.
Test loading conditions taken from the vessel's approved loading manual and stability booklet
shall be submitted to the Society for approval. As a minimum, the following conditions listed
below have to be accounted for:
• Light ship condition.
• Ballast arrival or partly loaded condition.
• Fully loaded (departure) condition.
• Extreme condition (anticipated worst condition for strength as found in the loading
manual).
Principles for certification: Certification shall be carried out on board to ensure that the
loading computer system works properly after installation and to verify that the correct
approved version of the software has been installed.
Periodical testing It is the responsibility of the vessel's master to check the accuracy of the
onboard computer for stability calculations at each annual survey by applying at least one
approved test condition. If a Society surveyor is not present for the computer check, a copy of
the test condition results obtained by the computer check shall be retained on board as
documentation of satisfactory testing for the surveyor’s verification. At each renewal survey
this checking for all approved test loading conditions shall be done in presence of the surveyor.