Introduction to

Mobile and Cellular

Communication Systems 1
1.1 Introduction

A
mobile phone is a portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It is also
known as a wireless phone, cell phone, or cellular telephone. In many developing countries,
mobile technology is a substitute for traditional fixed services. Worldwide the number
of cellular phone users in the years 1984, 1994, and 1997 were 25,000, 16 million, and 50
million, respectively. In 2000, the number of wireless users became equal to the wired users and
this number increased to 1.9 billion worldwide in the year 2005. The number of mobile users
increased to 3 billion by 2007, which is almost half of the world’s population. By 2011, the
estimated mobile phone subscriber base in India will be 298 million and India will become the
second largest country in the world, next to China. The resulting cellular penetration rate is 23.9
per cent of the nation’s population. Mobile technology extends access to formerly unreserved
population groups such as the urban poor and rural users. In addition to the standard voice
function, current mobile phones also support latest services such as short message service (SMS),
general packet radio service (GPRS), and multimedia service (MMS) for sending and receiving
photos and videos, e-mail, packet switching, wireless access protocol (WAP), and Bluetooth. The
cellular concept was developed by Bell Labs in 1960s–1970s.D

The evolution of cellular communication systems is commonly known by the 1G, 2G, 3G, and
4G designations.

We are currently in the third generation (3G) cellular communication systems. The cellular
network provides wireless connection between mobile phones or between a mobile phone and
landline phone using radio waves. These mobile phones connect to the cellular networks which
are further connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).

The cellular network uses a number of low-power transmitters called base stations (BSs) and
each BS covers a unit area called a “cell”.

The cellular network concept is against the use of a single high-power transmitter with antenna
mounted on a tall tower as is the case in the early mobile radios (shown in Fig. 1.1(a)) to cover
a large area. The difficulty in the early mobile radio systems was the reuse of same frequencies
throughout the system resulting in significant interference and lot of bandwidth being dedicated
2 Mobile Cellular Communication

Same coverage area

BS

Service area: BS BS
Large zone

BS

High power transmitter

with antenna mounted on BS BS
a tall tower

Low power BS
transmitters
called base stations

(a) Early mobile radio system: Large zone (b) Cellular system: small zone

Figure 1.1 Early mobile radio system and cellular system

to a single call. The cellular system shown in Figure 1.1(b) uses a number of low-power transmitters
called BSs to cover same area and to avoid the above difficulties.
This chapter introduces the different generations of cellular systems and their limitations, the
geometry of the cell, different performance improvement methods such as handoff, frequency
reuse, cell splitting, and so on, the principle of cellular radio systems, and also includes a brief
overview of the analogue and digital cellular mobile systems.

1.2 Generations of wireless mobile systems

Wireless communication is basically transmitting and receiving voice and data using
electromagnetic waves in open space. The origin of wireless communications can be traced back
to the year 1857, when the behaviour of electromagnetic waves was explained mathematically
using four equations by James Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell’s four equations describe the electric and
magnetic fields arising from varying distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those
fields change with time.
The equations were the mathematical representation of decades of experimental observations
of the electric and magnetic effects of charges and currents. According to Maxwell, an accelerated
charge creates a magnetic field in its neighbourhood which in turn creates an electric field in the
same area. A moving magnetic field produces an electric field and vice versa. These two fields
vary with time, so they act as sources of each other. Thus, an oscillating charge having non-zero
acceleration will emit an electromagnetic (EM) wave and the frequency of the wave will be same
as that of the oscillation of the charge. Though the electromagnetic waves were first discovered
as a communication medium at the end of the nineteenth century, these were put in use for the
masses later.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 3

A Gap
AC source
Induction S
coil
EM wave
B Detector
Spark
generator

Figure 1.2 EM wave generation

Twenty years later, in the period 1879–1886, after a series of experiments, Heinrich Hertz
came to the conclusion that an oscillatory electrical charge q = q0sin t radiates EM waves and
these waves carry energy. Hertz was also able to produce EM waves of frequency 3 × 1010 Hertz.
The experimental setup is shown in the Figure 1.2. To detect EM waves, he used a loop S, which
is slightly separated from EM wave generator as shown in the figure.
Hertz’s radio system consists of a switch and an induction coil to generate a spark across two
electrodes. The receiver was a loop(S) made from a copper wire around 35 cm in diameter, with a
small gap in the loop. When the “transmitter” generated a spark, a small spark was seen to jump
the gap in the receiving coil. This is the basis for the antenna theory. In 1895–1897, Jagdish Bose
also succeeded in generating EM waves of very short wavelength (~25 mm).
The father of today’s mobile radio systems is G. Marconi, born in Italy in 1874. He
demonstrated the first radio-based wireless transmission successfully using electromagnetic
waves in 1901 over a distance of 1 mile. However, the bandwidth of these transmission systems
was very small; the transmission of information was very slow. Over the next couple of decades,
Marconi was a leading pioneer in establishing long-range wireless communication standards and
his efforts led to the deployment of first radio-based telephony system for conversations between
ships in 1915.
A technological breakthrough was the development of frequency modulation (FM) in the
mid-1930s by Edwin Howard Armstrong. The Second World War battlefields were a major test
bed for portable two-way FM radio technologies. The first systems offering mobile telephone
service (MTS) (car phone) were introduced in the late 1940s in the United States and in the
early 1950s in Europe. These single cell systems were severely constrained by restricted mobility,
low capacity, limited service, and poor speech quality. Also, the equipment was heavy, bulky,
expensive, and susceptible to interference.
In 1964, Bell Laboratories introduced the improved mobile telephone service (IMTS) which
added full-duplex features to the old MTS. In 1968 and 1970, the Federal Communication
Commission (FCC) realizing the huge potentials of mobile telephony, reallocated the frequency
spectrum (40 MHz band in the 800 to 900 MHz frequency range) for cellular use. The cell covers
a service area where a group of mobiles or terminals (referred to as users) are served primarily by
one BS – usually located at the centre of the cell.
In addition, AT&T proposed a cellular mobile scheme in 1968 to the FCC which was approved
in 1974. The cellular concept of using the same frequency at different places was introduced by
MacDonald in 1979. The next evolutionary steps begin in the early 1980s with the deployment
of the first generation (1G) analogue networks based on frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
4 Mobile Cellular Communication

In addition to the original 40 MHz band, an additional 10 MHz band was allocated in 1988 and
called as the expanded spectrum (ES). Cellular communication is full duplex and the frequency
band is divided between both communications: 25MHz is allocated to the forward path or
downlink, which is the path for BS to mobile unit and the other half is for the mobile to BS. The
paths are separated by a 45 MHz guard band in order to avoid interference between transmission
and reception channels.
The increased demand for mobile communication led to the evolution of second generation
(2G) digital networks in the early 1990s. The introduction of time-division multiplexing (TDM) on
top of the existing FDM, an essential feature of 2G, increased the number of served subscribers
per geographical area. In addition, voice quality was improved as well, with the introduction
of newer voice coding algorithms. Finally, at the beginning of the third millennium, the first
2.5G networks, which are an upgrade of 2G and the 3G networks were implemented in most
countries worldwide. And now the research is on the next-generation mobile technology with
more advanced features, that is 4G, which is expected to be available in the market by 2012–
2015. For clear understanding of the evolution of analogue and digital cellular technology, their
broad features are illustrated in Figure 1.3.

1.2.1 First generation (1G)

The first 1G mobile phone system was introduced in 1980 in the United States. Before 1G, “0G”
refers to pre-cellular mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones that we had in cars
before the advent of cell phones.
Analogue circuit-switched technology is used for this system, with frequency division
multiple access (FDMA), as an air channel multiple access technique, and worked mainly in the
800–900 MHz frequency bands. The 1G mobile phone had only voice facility.
Examples of 1G system are analogue mobile phone systems (AMPS) and total access
communication systems (TACS). The AMPS was implemented in North America and the TACS
was used in Europe.

Broad Band
4G
Service type
Wide Band
Multimedia 3G

Packet Data IMT 2000

2.5G WWWW
Narrow Band
2G Wireless Internet Mobile system
Digital Voice Digital WCDMA (UMTS) Wireless IP
Digital GPRS
1G CDMA2000
GSM, EDGE
Analog CDMA
Analog Voice (IS 95, IS CDMAone
AMPS 136)
14.4/64Kbps 64/144Kbps ~2Mbps ~100Mbps
1980 1990 2000 2001+ 2003+ 2010–2015 Years

Figure 1.3 Evolution of cellular systems

 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 5

In AMPS, two 25-MHz bands are allocated. One 25-MHz band is for communication from BS
to mobile unit and the other for communication from mobile unit to BS.
The following are the limitations of 1G:

• Supports only speech

• Low traffic capacity
• Unreliable handover
• Long-call setup time and frequent call drops
• Inefficient use of bandwidth and poor battery life
• Poor voice quality and large phone size
• Allows users to make voice calls in 1 country only

1.2.2 Second generation (2G)

The need for more user capacity per cell led to the development of 2G technologies. 2G systems
are digital cellular systems and were introduced in the late 1980s and were in use till the late
1990s. 2G technology supports data, speech, FAX, SMS, and WAP services. The frequency bands
used by GSM are 890–960 MHz and 1710–1880 MHz. In the 890–960 MHz frequency band, the
band at 890–915 MHz is dedicated to uplink communications from the mobile station (MS) to
the BS, and the band at 935–960 MHz is used for the downlink communications from the BS
to the MS. 2G digital technology is divided into two standards: time division multiple access
(TDMA) and code-division multiple access (CDMA).
Global system for mobile (GSM) was the first commercially operated digital cellular system
and uses TDMA/frequency-division duplexing (FDD)
IS-95 is commonly referred to as CDMA one standard and is used in North America and some
parts of Asia
The following are limitations of 2G:

• Provides low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 28.8 kbps.
• Circuit-switched network, where the end systems are dedicated for the entire call session.
This causes reduction in usage of bandwidth and resources.
• Too many 2G standards globally (e.g. GSM, CDMA, PDC, and PHS )

1.2.3 Interim generation (2.5G)

The need for increased throughput data rates in data transfer (such as web browsing and e-mail)
led to the evolution of 2.5G which is between 2G and 3G.

The mobile technology using GPRS standard has been termed as 2.5G.

The 2.5G was started in 1998 with added GPRS and enhanced data rates for GSM evolution
(EDGE). In addition to the hyper text transfer protocol (HTTP), it supports the wireless access
protocol (WAP) through which web pages can be viewed on the small screen of a mobile phone
or a handheld device, which led to mobile commerce (m-commerce).

1.2.4 Third generation (3G)

The need for high-speed internet access, live video communications, and simultaneous data and
voice transmission led to the development of 3G cellular networks. The 3G technology has added
multimedia facilities to 2.5G phones. 3G operates in the frequency band of 1710–2170 MHz. It provides
high transmission rates from 348 Kbps in a moving vehicle to 2 Mbps for stationary or mobile users.
6 Mobile Cellular Communication

The aim of 3G systems is to provide communication services from person-to-person at any

place (global roaming) and at any time through any medium with guaranteed quality of service.
Examples of 3G system are universal mobile telecommunication systems (UMTS) and
international mobile telecommunications at 2,000 MHz (IMT-2000).
UMTS are designed to provide different types of data rates, based on the following
circumstances: up to 144 kbps for moving vehicles, 384 kbps for pedestrians, and 2 Mbps for
indoor or stationary users. UMTS will integrate all the services offered by different mobile
communication systems such as mobile phone, cordless telephone, and satellite radio in one
service. Japan was the first country to introduce 3G system IMT-2000 network nationally, and in
Japan the transition to 3G was completed in the year 2006.
Figure 1.4 illustrates the mobile phone samples of 1G, 2G, and 3G cellular network generations.
Figure 1.4(a) is the first handheld device from Motorola Company which was available in 1984
in 1G network. Figure 1.4(b) is Ericsson GH218 which was introduced in 1994 and operated in
2G networks. Figure 1.4(c) is the LG U8110 that was introduced in 2004 and is operating in 3G
networks.
The following are the drawbacks of 3G system:

• High bandwidth requirement

• High spectrum licensing fees
• Expense and bulk size of 3G phones
• Lack of 2G mobile user buy in for 3G wireless service
• Lack of network coverage because it is still a new service
• High prices of 3G mobile services in some countries

1.2.5 Fourth generation (4G)

Even though the 3G networks have been deployed since 2001, the true broadband access will be
achieved with the 4G mobile phones. The 4G mobile communications will have transmission
rates up to 20 Mbps higher than that of 3G.
4G technology is expected to provide very smooth global roaming universally with lower
cost. Theoretically, 4G is set to deliver 100 Mbps to a roaming mobile device globally, and up to

(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G

Figure 1.4 Samples of mobile phones from the three generations

 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 7

1 Gbps to a stationary device. 4G will bring almost the perfect real world wireless internetworking
called “WWWW: WorldWide Wireless Web”
With the expected features in mind, 4G allows for video conferencing, streaming picture-
perfect video (e.g. tele-medicine and tele-geo processing application) and much more. Since the
4G is a research item for the next-generation wide-area cellular radio, the technology is expected
to be available around 2012–2015. The following modulation techniques are proposed to be used
in the 4G cellular phones.

• Variable spreading factor-orthogonal frequency and code division multiplexing (VSF-

OFCDM).
• Variable spreading factor code-division multiple access (VSF- CDMA).

A short history of cellular evolution from 1G to 4G cellular systems is shown in Table 1.1. From
Table 1.1 we can observe that the 4G is not a single defined technology or standard, but rather
a collection of technologies and protocols aimed at creating fully packet-switched networks
optimized for data. Another major difference between 3G and 4G is that unlike the 3G networks
which are a combination of circuit-switched and packet-switched networks, 4G will be based on
packet switching only. This will allow low-latency data transmission.

Table 1.1 History of 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G technologies

Various generations
Technology 1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G
Design began 1970 1980 1985 1990 2000
Implementation 1984 1991 1999 2002 2012–2015
Service Analogue Digital voice High-capacity High-capacity Higher capacity,
voice packets, MMS broadband completely IP,
data Multimedia
Multiple access FDMA TDMA, TDMA, CDMA CDMA OFDMA
CDMA
Standards AMPS, CDMA, GPRS, EDGE WCDMA, Single standard
TACS, NMT GSM, PDC CDMA2000
Bandwidth 1.9 kbps 14.4 kbps 384 kbps 2 Mbps 200 Mbps
Core network PSTN PSTN PSTN, Packet Packet Internet
network network

1.3 Cellular geometry

The main reason for defining cells in a cellular land mobile radio system is to outline areas in
which specific channels and specific cell sites are used. However, designers have realized that
visualizing all cells as having the same geometrical shape helps to ease the design of cellular
systems, not only in locating transmitter sites relative to one another and making economical use
of equipment, but also in making the adaptation to traffic much easier. From this point of view,
8 Mobile Cellular Communication

cellular geometry helps to ease the assessment of spectral efficiency of various cellular systems, in
particular to calculate the significant co-channel interference (CCI) in the system.

1.3.1 Cell shapes

There are only certain patterns of cells or tessellations which can be repeated over a plane: the
regular hexagon, the square, the circle, and the triangle.
The regular hexagon is favoured by system designers for the following reasons:

• It provides the best approximation to the circular omni-directional radio patterns achieved
in practice.
• It is more economical to use since a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells and hence fewer
stations.
• It combines ease of geometry with the practical realization of overlapping circles.
• For a given distance between the centre of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points, the
hexagon has the largest area, and it almost approximates a circular radiation pattern.

Hexagons are generally used to represent the cells due to geometry considerations and calculation
purposes.

For example, in Figure 1.5 hexagons closely approximate the circle, which is used as a
coverage area by a BS that has transmission radius (range) R. More details are given in Chapter 2
about cell and sector shapes by comparing the hexagonal and circular cell shapes.

1.4 Introduction to cellular concept

The cellular concept was developed in response to the limitations of conventional mobile radio
services. The main limitations of the previous mobile communication systems are as follows:

1. High-power transmitters were used to cover very large area.

2. Inefficient use of allocated radio spectrum.
3. If a user leaves the coverage area, they had to reinitiate the call on a different frequency
channel.

Cell radius
Radius
(R)
(R)

BS
BS

Figure 1.5 Circle to hexagonal cell shape approximation

 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 9

Dropped call area

User had to re-
establish calls

Base station A Base station B

Figure 1.6 Conventional mobile radio service

In the beginning, there were no handoffs and the cellular system’s size depended on how
much power the centralized BS could transmit and receive. Users who stepped out of range of
one system had to re-establish the call in the next system (Fig. 1.6). The capacity of these systems
was severely limited because only a small number of radio channels (available bandwidth) were
available for mobile systems. Therefore, they had to find a way to reuse radio channels in order
to carry more than one conversation. Repeatedly reusing the radio frequencies over a given
geographical area provides number of simultaneous conversations. The basic idea of the cellular
concept is frequency reuse.

1.4.1 Frequency reuse

Frequency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to cover different
areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances.
Since the users in different geographical areas (cells) may simultaneously use the same
frequency, this technique maximizes the number of mobile phones served in a given geographical
area and spectrum efficiency. Frequency reuse causes CCI which is a trade-off link quality versus
subscriber capacity. This concept is shown in Figure 1.7 and is explained in greater detail in
Chapter 2. Cells with the same letter (A) use the same set of frequencies. A cell group or cluster
is outlined in bold and replicated over the coverage area. In Figure 1.7, the cluster size (N) is 7
and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell contains 1/7 of the total number of available
channels.

1.4.2 Handoff
Notion of handoff is a crucial component in cellular concept. The mobile users by definition
are mobile i.e. they can move around while using the phone. Hence the network should be
able to provide them continuous access as they move. This will not be a problem if the user is
moving within the same cell. But when the user moves from one cell to another, a handoff is
required.
Handoff is one of the important concepts in the cellular mobile communications. The mobile
user can move around while using the mobile phone, which is the main advantage of mobile
10 Mobile Cellular Communication

B Cluster of 7 cells
Cluster of-7 cells
Cells (A) that G C
B
G C use same set of A
carrier frequencies F D
Cells A
D B E
F
E G C B
A G C
F D A
E F D
E

Figure 1.7 An illustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept

phones. Even when the mobile user is moving, the access to the network should be continuous.
This problem does not arise if the user is moving within the same cell, but when the user is
moving from cell to cell, a handoff is needed.
Handoff is the process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile
unit moves from the first cell to the other cell without disconnecting the call.
When a mobile moves into a different cell while the call is in progress, the mobile switching
centre (MSC) automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new BS. Handoff
operation involves identifying a new BS along with the allocation of voice and control signals.
Example of a handoff process is given in steps with reference to mobile phone moving from
one BS to another as shown in Figure 1.8:

• A user is transmitting and receiving signals from a given BS (say BS1).

• Assume the user moves from the coverage area of one BS into the coverage area of a second
BS (BS2).
• BS1 notices that the signal from this user is degrading.
• BS2 notices that the signal from this user is improving.

Figure 1.8 Call handoff process

 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 11

• At some point, the user’s signal is weak enough at BS1 and strong enough at BS2 for a handoff
to occur.
• Specifically, if messages are exchanged between the user, BS1, and BS2 then the communication
to/from the user is transferred from BS1 to BS2.

Figure 1.9(a) depicts an improper handoff scenario between two BSs (i.e. BS1 and BS2). When
the mobile user in a car is at point A in the coverage area of BS1, then the received signal strength
(RSS) is above the threshold level as shown in Figure 1.9(a). But if the mobile user in the car is
moving towards point B in the coverage area of BS2, then the RSS received by the mobile due
to the BS2 is dropped below the minimum acceptable threshold level and the call is terminated.
Figure 1.9(b) depicts the proper handoff scenario that has taken place when the mobile user’s car
is moving from BS1 to BS2. In this case, when the mobile user is at point A under the coverage
area of BS1, then the RSS is above the threshold level as shown in Figure 1.9(b). If the mobile
user in the car is moving towards point B in the coverage area of BS2, then the RSS received by
the mobile due to the BS2 is well above minimum acceptable threshold level, and therefore, the
handoff is successful.

[Link] Types of handoff

Handoffs are broadly classified into two categories:

• Hard handoff
• Soft handoff (SHO)

Hard handoff is “break-before-make”, meaning that the connection to the old BS is broken
before a connection to the new BS is made. Hard handoff occurs when handoff is made between
disjointed radio systems, different frequency assignments, or different air-interface characteristics
or technologies.

Figure 1.9(a) Improper handoff Figure 1.9(b) Proper handoff

 12 Mobile Cellular Communication

Usually, the hard handoff can be further divided into two different types: intracellular and
intercellular handoffs.
A handoff made within the currently serving cell (e.g. by changing the frequency) is called
an intracellular handoff. A handoff made from one cell to another is referred to as an intercellular
handoff.
SHO is “make-before–break”, meaning that the connection to the old BS is not broken until a
connection to the new BS is made. In fact, more than one BS is normally connected simultaneously
to the MS. There are different types of SHO. When sectors of the same BS are involved in
communication with the MS, the handoff is called softer handoff. When one sector from each BS
is involved, the handoff is called soft handoff. When multiple sectors of one BS and one or more
sectors of another BS communicate with the MS, the resulting SHO is called softer-soft handoff.

[Link] Handoff strategies

Mobility in network is managed by two different handoff strategies, namely horizontal handoff
and vertical handoff.
In case of horizontal handoff, handoff is between two network access points or BSs that use
the same wireless network access technology. The handoff is purely due to mobility of the MS.
In case of vertical handoff, handoff is between two network access points or BSs that use the
different wireless network access technology.
In the 1G analogue cellular systems, the RSS measurements are made by the BS and are
supervised by the MSC. In the 2G systems that use TDMA technology, mobile-assisted handoff
(MAHO) is used. In MAHO, every mobile phone measures the RSS from the surrounding BS
and continuously reports the RSS values to the corresponding BS. Further details of the handoff
mechanism are presented in Chapter 18.

1.4.3 Co-channel interference

For each cell, a set of frequencies is allocated.
Cells that use the same set of frequencies are denoted as co-
channel cells and the interference received from co-channel
cells is called co-channel interference.
The CCI occurs mainly due to reusing an identical frequency
channel. This has become a major problem in the mobile cellular
network. To reduce the CCI, minimum frequency reuse distance
must be used. If all cell sizes are fixed, CCI is independent of the
transmitted power of each cell. One method to reduce the CCI
is by tilting down the BS antenna beam as shown in Figure 1.10
due to which the power outside the cell causing CCI reduces.
Figure 1.10 CCI reduction
CCI in the cellular system is described in detail in Chapter 3.
using beam tilting
The following five types of approaches are followed in
cellular communications to increase the user capacity.

• Adding new channels: New channels are added between mobile unit & base station.
• Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.
• Cell splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.
• Cell sectoring: Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own
set of channels.
• Microcells: BS antennas move to buildings and lamp posts.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 13

1.4.4 Cell splitting

Cell splitting is the process of dividing the radio coverage of a cell site into two or more new
cell sites. Cell splitting is performed to provide additional capacity (number of channels) within
the region of the original cell site by increasing the number of BSs.
Splitting a cell provides more number of cells,
reduction in the cell size, and
corresponding reduction in the antenna height and transmitter power
More number of cells gives more number of clusters, resulting in more number of channels
and high user capacity.
The cell radius (R) reduction by a factor of f reduces the coverage area and increases the
required number of BSs by a factor of f 2.
Figure 1.11 illustrates how cells can be divided if higher capacity is needed in a spot. We
need to go locally to smaller cluster size (N). Figure 1.11 consists of three clusters and each cluster

Large cells fi
Low user capacity
Increased capacity in
in center cell by 7
(for N = 7 plan)

Before cell splitting

After cell splitting

Large cells fi Low
user capacity

Large cell
fi Low user
capacity
Small cell
fi High user
capacity

Small cell
fi Higher user
capacity

Further cells splitting

Figure 1.11 Cell splitting before and after in 3 clusters of size 7

14 Mobile Cellular Communication

is a group of seven cells. ([Link]

[Link]). To cover a smaller area, the radio coverage area of large cells sites are split by
adjusting the power level and/or using reduced antenna height. The radio coverage area of the
cell site can be reduced by changing the RF boundaries of the cell site. This is similar to placing
the cells farther apart and permitting new cells to be added. To use the cell resources efficiently
the smaller cells can be either activated or deactivated according to the traffic patterns. More
details on cell splitting are discussed in Chapter 3.

1.5 Principle of operation of a cellular mobile system

The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network. A mobile
phone is a portable telephone used to receive or make calls through a cell site (BS), or transmitting
tower. Electromagnetic waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell phone.
Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are limited, shared
resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low-power
transmitters so that a limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many
callers with less interference. Figure 1.12 illustrates the cellular mobile network.
A cellular network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both coverage and
capacity for their subscribers. Large geographical areas are split into smaller cells to avoid line-of-
sight (LOS) signal loss and to support a large number of active phones in that area. All cell sites
are connected to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect to the public telephone
network.
Coverage area of cells: In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately 1/2
mile, while in rural areas the range could be as much as 5 miles. It is possible that in clear open
areas, a user may receive signals from a cell site 25 miles away.

1.5.1 Components of a cellular mobile network

A cellular network is formed by connecting the following five components as shown in
Figure 1.12.

1. Mobile station (MS)

2. Base station (BS)
3. Mobile switching centre (MSC)
4. Base station controller (BSC)
5. Public switched telephone network (PSTN)

The function of each network component is described in the following:

Mobile station (MS): MSs are usually a mobile phone. Each mobile phone contains a transceiver
(transmitter and receiver), an antenna, and control circuitry. Antenna converts the transmitted
RF signal into an EM wave and the received EM waves into an RF signal. The same antenna is
used for both transmission and reception, so there is a duplexer switch to multiplex the same
antenna.
Base station (BS): One of the important components in the cellular network is the BS.
BS provides direct communication with mobile phones and it defines the cell. When cells are
grouped together, a cluster is formed. Within a cluster, no channels are reused.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 15

Base
stations/Cell

BS

MS

BSC BSC Land line

telephone

MSC PSTN
Internet

Figure 1.12 Cellular network

Two frequencies are required to establish communication between MS and BS: one from mobile
phone (MS) to BS (uplink channel) and inverse (downlink channel) as shown in Figure 1.13.
A group of BSs are in turn connected to a BSC. The BS is a transceiver station or system and
consists of a number of different elements.

• The first part of the BS is electronics section normally located in a container at the base of the
antenna tower. The various electronic devices for communicating with the mobile handsets
include RF amplifiers, radio transceivers, RF combiners, control, communication links, and
power supplies with backup.
• The second part of the BS is the antenna and the feeder to connect the antenna to the base
transceiver station itself. These antennas are visible on top of the masts and tall buildings
enabling them to cover the required area.
• It is important that the location, height, and orientation are all correct to ensure that the
required coverage is achieved.
• If the antenna is too low or in a poor location, there will be insufficient coverage, leaving
a coverage “hole”.
• If the antenna is too high and directed incorrectly, then the signal will be heard well
beyond the boundaries of the cell. This may result in interference with another cell using
the same frequencies.
16 Mobile Cellular Communication

Reverse or Reverse or
uplink uplink channel
channel

Forward or
Forward or
downlink
downlink
channel User’s
mobile
User’s phone
Base station (BS)
mobile
phone

Mobile station transmits at 825.03 MHz and BS transmits at 870.03 MHz.

Channel separation is 45 MHz. Each voice channel has a 30 kHz
bandwidth

Figure 1.13 Downlink and uplink channels

BS or cell site antenna: Either omni-directional or directional antennas are used as BS antennas in
the wireless industry. The typical directional antenna is shown in Figure 1.14. The cell site mast
generally has three “faces” each with several frequency agile, directional antennas. Each face
covers approximately 120° of the cell and each face uses a different subset of the cell’s assigned
frequencies. Usually, the antenna tower is at the centre of the cell.
Omni-directional antenna: Today, the omni-directional
antenna shown in Figure 1.15a at BSs exists only in rural areas
for the most part. This is because of the lower subscriber densities
in rural areas and the lack of requirement for the increased
capacity that is afforded by using directional antennas and
sectorized BSs. Omni-directional BSs are noted for their use of
omni-directional antennas which are slender, long, and tubular.
There are always two receive antennas at every BS, which are
known as receive zero (Rx0) and receive one (Rx1). The purpose of
having two receive antennas at every BS is to provide for what
is known as space diversity. Space diversity, also known as receive
Figure 1.14 3 face directional diversity, compensates for Rayleigh fading in the uplink to the
antenna as base BS. Space diversity is a tool used to optimize the signal received
station antenna by a BS (transceiver); it counteracts the negative effects of
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 17

Tx
Rx0

Rx0 Rx1 Tx
Rx1

Diversity receiver
antennas Two Rx antennas
for diversity

Cell base station

Figure 1.15a Horizontal view of tower mounting Figure 1.15b Typical antenna arrangement
of omni directional BS antenna

BS

BSC

Figure 1.16 Interconnection of BS and BSC

Rayleigh fading. It ensures that the best possible receive signal is used to process all wireless calls.
A typical antenna arrangement is shown in Figure 1.15(b).
Base station controller (BSC): A number of BSs are connected to a BSC as shown in Figure
1.16. An important function of BSC is that it manages the “handoff” from one BS to another as
a subscriber moves from cell-to-cell. The BSC contains logic to control each of the BSs. Also, a
group of BSCs are in turn connected to a MSC via microwave link or telephone lines.
Mobile switching centre (MSC): The MSC is the control centre for the cellular system. The MSC
is also known as mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). It coordinates the actions of the BSs
providing overall control and acts as a switch and connects into the PSTN. Various functions
performed by a MSC are as follows:

• It communicates with the BSs, routing calls and controlling them as required.
• It contains databases detailing the last known locations of the mobiles.
• It also contains facilities for authentication centre allowing mobiles onto the network.
• It contains facilities to generate billing information for individual accounts.

For this purpose, the MSC makes use of the three major components of the network subsystem
(NSS), that is HLR, VLR, and AUC.
18 Mobile Cellular Communication

Home location register (HLR): The HLR contains the information related to each mobile
subscriber, such as the type of subscription, services that the user can use, the subscriber’s
current location, and the mobile equipment status. The database in the HLR remains intact and
unchanged until the termination of the subscription.
Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR comes into action once the subscriber enters the
coverage region. Unlike the HLR, the VLR is dynamic in nature and interacts with the HLR when
recoding the data of a particular mobile subscriber. When the subscriber moves to another region,
the database of the subscriber is also shifted to the VLR of the new region.
Authentication centre (AUC): The AUC (or AC) is responsible
for policing actions in the network. This has all the data
PSTN required to protect the network against false subscribers and
to protect the calls of regular subscribers. There are two major
keys in the GSM standards: the encryption of communications
MSC between mobile users and the authentication of the users.
The encryption keys are held both in the mobile equipment
and the AUC and the information is protected against
BS BS BS unauthorized access.
PSTN is a cellular network that can be viewed as an
MS MS interface between mobile units and a telecommunication
infrastructure (Fig. 1.17). Therefore, the PSTN network is
Figure 1.17 PSTN to mobile nothing but the land-based section of the network. It is
station connectivity necessary that the BSs are to be connected to a switching
network and that network is to be connected to other
networks such as the PSTN, so that calls can be made to and
from mobile subscribers.

1.5.2 Common air interface

Communication between the BS and the mobiles is defined by a standard common air interface
(CAI) that specifies four different channels. The channels used for voice transmission from the BS
to mobiles are called forward voice channels (FVC) and the channels used for voice transmission
from mobiles to the BS are called reverse voice channels (RVC). The two channels responsible
for initiating mobile calls are the forward control channels (FOCC) and reverse control channels
(RECC). Control channels are often called setup channels because they are only involved in
setting up a call and moving it to an unused voice channel. Control channels transmit and receive
data messages that carry call initiation and service requests, and are monitored by mobiles when
they do not have a call in progress. FOCCs also serve as beacons which continually broadcast all
of the traffic requests for all mobiles in the system.

1.6 Call transfer operation from one mobile phone to another

The operation of one phone placing a call to another mobile phone and the operation that takes
place when a MS receives an incoming call is described in this section. Before describing the
call transfer operation to/from one mobile to another mobile, the knowledge of the concept of
duplex and control/voice channels must first be understood.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 19

Figure 1.18(a) FDD Figure 1.18(b) TDD

1.6.1 The duplex concept

One of the key elements of any radio communications system is the way in which radio
communications are maintained in both directions. The various types of mobile radio transmission
systems in use are simplex, half duplex, and full duplex.
Simplex: Communication is possible only in one direction (e.g. paging systems).
Half duplex: Two-way communication, but uses the same radio channel for both transmission
and reception. User can only transmit or receive information (e.g. walkie-talkie).
Full duplex: Simultaneous two-way radio transmission and reception between the subscriber
and the BS (e.g. FDD and time-division duplexing [TDD]).
Similar to landline phones, cellular phones must also be full duplex. For cellular systems, it
is necessary to talk or to send data in both directions simultaneously and this places a number of
constraints on the schemes that may be used to control the transmission flow. Using the FDD and
TDD duplexing schemes, simultaneous two-way communication can be established.
FDD uses two separate frequencies for the uplink (from the mobile to the BS) and the downlink (from
the BS to the mobile).
TDD uses a single frequency to transmit signals in both the downlink and uplink directions.
In FDD information from the mobile handset to the BS is carried on one frequency and
information from the BS to the handset is carried on another (Fig. 1.18(a)). In TDD information
from the handset to the BS is transmitted at one time on one frequency and information from the
BS to the handset is transmitted at another time on the same frequency (Fig. 1.18(b)).

Example problem 1.1

The bandwidth allocated to a particular FDD cellular system is 33 MHz. It uses two 25 kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of channels
available per cell if a system uses (a) 4 cell reuse and (b) 7 cell reuse (refer Section 1.6.1).

Solution

Total bandwidth allocated to cellular system = 33 MHz

Channel bandwidth required for duplex channel (uplink and downlink) = 25 kHz × 2 = 50 kHz
20 Mobile Cellular Communication

Total number of available channels = 33,000,000/50,000 = 660

a) For cluster size N = 4, number of channels available per cell = 660/4 = 165
b) For cluster size N = 7, number of channels available per cell = 660/7 = 95

1.6.2 Control and voice channels

There are two general types of channels in a cellular system: control channels and traffic (voice)
channels.
Control channels: The control channels are referred to as setup channels and paging channels.
Control channels are also sometimes called paging channels in the case of downlink, and access
channels in the case of uplink. The paging channels are used to set up calls that originate from
the BS, while the access channel is used to set up calls that originate from the mobile. Paging
channel is designated as FOCC and the access channel as the RECC (Fig. 1.18(a)).
The FOCC and RECC establish the MS on the network (registration), to set up calls from
the MS and to set up calls coming in for a particular MS (called a mobile page). After a call is
established using the RECC and FOCC, the process switches to the voice channels.
Traffic channels: Traffic channels are active during voice conversations, but they also do
contain the digital information needed to keep a call up. A MS thus tunes to and receives either
a control channel or a traffic channel at any given moment.

1.6.3 Operation of one mobile phone placing a call to another mobile phone
The operation of one mobile phone placing a call to another involves two steps. One is the
initialization of the mobile system and the second is the establishment of the call.
Initialization of mobile system: Five basic steps are involved in the mobile initialization
procedure. They are power on, scanning, tuning, registering, and listening. When a mobile phone
is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest and best bit-error rate (BER) (control channel)
signal sent by adjacent BSs. Then a handshaking process takes place between the mobile phone
and the MSC to identify the user and register its location. This procedure is repeated periodically
as long as the mobile unit is on to monitor the location of the mobile.
Establishment of a call: If a user dials a number and presses START or TALK button, the mobile
phone initializes a call by sending a call initiation request to its nearest BS. This request is sent on
a special channel (RECC). The BS sends the request, which contains the telephone number of the
called party, to the MSC ([Link]
full). The MSC validates the request and uses the number to make a connection to the called party
via the PSTN. Then PSTN first connects itself to the MSC of the called party, and then the MSC
instructs the BS and MS that placed the call to switch to voice channels. The MS that placed the
call is then connected to the called station, using unused forward and backward voice channels.

1.6.4 Operation that takes place when a mobile station receives an incoming call
The following operation takes place when a MS receives an incoming call is described in this
section.
MSs continually scan the FOCC for paging signals from BSs. Paging signal informs the mobile
phone that it has a call coming in and should prepare the set up to receive it.
When a MSC receives a request for a connection to a MS in its area, it sends a broadcast
message to all BSs under its control. The message contains the number of the MS that is being
called. The BSs then broadcasts the message on all FOCCs. The correct MS acknowledges the
page, by identifying itself over the RECC. The MSC receives the acknowledgment via the BS and
instructs the BS and MS to switch to an unused voice channel. A data message is then transmitted
over the FVC which instructs the mobile phone to ring.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 21

Figure 1.19 Multiple access control

1.7 Multiple access schemes

The radio spectrum is a scarce resource. Without access to radio spectrum, there can be no mobile
communication. Multiple access refers to techniques that enable multiple users to share a finite
portion of given frequency spectrum efficiently. The sharing of frequency spectrum is required to
achieve high capacity by simultaneously allocating the bandwidth.
The multiple users will be assigned channels within that portion according to various
techniques, known as multiple access schemes. A channel can be thought of as merely a portion
of the limited radio resource (frequency slot or time slot or code), which is temporarily allocated
for a specific purpose, such as someone’s phone call. Multiple access control is shown in Figure
1.19.
The five most common schemes are given below and are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 16.

• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), where the total spectrum assignment is divided into
a number of discrete frequencies.
• Time division multiple access (TDMA), where the total spectrum is divided in time between a
number of users.
• Code division multiple access (CDMA), where neither the frequencies nor the time are divided
but users are distinguished through the use of a special code.
• Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), where the spread spectrum technique
spreads the data over a number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies.
• Space division multiple access (SDMA), where different users will be served on same frequency
channel at the same time.

1.8 Analogue and digital cellular mobile systems

The 1G cellular mobile systems were introduced in the beginning of the 1980s. Examples of
these early analogue systems are AMPS and NMT. It used FDMA technology to achieve radio
communications. In the 1990s the analogue systems were replaced by digital technology, which
22 Mobile Cellular Communication

provided higher capacity, better quality, and new services. The most widely used 2G mobile
system is GSM. The deployment of the 3G mobile networks is now ongoing. The 3G offers new
data and multimedia services. The major 3G technology is called WCDMA. In this section, the
analogue and digital cellular systems are briefly introduced.

1.8.1 Analogue cellular mobile radio systems (AMPS)

During the early 1980s, there were analogue technologies and the 1G cellular system was designed
for analogue voice communications only. The following are examples of 1G cellular analogue
radio system:

• Advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) in the United States

• Total access communication systems (TACS) in the United Kingdom
• Nippon advanced mobile telephone system (NAMTS) in Japan

AMPS are one of the leading analogue cellular phone systems

Uplink in the United States. AMPS use the 800 MHz to 900 MHz band.
(reverse channel)
It uses two separate analogue channels, one for forward (BS
to MS) and the other for reverse (MS to BS) communication.
Downlink The 824–849MHz band is used for reverse communication
(forward channel)
Mobile station and the 869–894MHz band is for forward communication
Base station (Fig. 1.20). This spectrum is divided into 832 frequency
Figure 1.20 Forward and channels consisting of 416 downlink and 416 uplink
reverse channels. The division of the spectrum into sub-band
communication channels is achieved by using FDMA.
channels in AMPS
Salient features of analogue cellular mobile systems (AMPS)

• Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is the analogue cellular modulation standard.

• Cellular network uses a duplex mode of communication and two channels are required for
each call: one channel for transmitting and one channel for receiving.
• User’s mobile phone transmits on 824–849MHz band known as uplink or reverse channel.
• BS transmits on 869–894MHz band known as downlink or forward channel.
• In AMPS, the channel spacing is 30 kHz. Each uplink and downlink channel occupies 30 kHz
of bandwidth. Every AMPS cellular call actually occupies a total of 60 kHz.

Limitations of AMPS include

• Low calling capacity

• Limited spectrum
• Poor data communication
• Minimal privacy
• Inadequate protection

Example problem 1.2

The American analogue technology standard, known as Advanced Mobile Phone Service
(AMPS), employs frequency modulation and occupies a 30 kHz frequency slot for each voice
channel. Suppose that a total of 30 MHz bandwidth is allocated to a particular cellular radio
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 23

communication system with cluster size 7. How many channels per cell does the system provide?
(refer Section 1.8.1).

Solution

Allocation of 15 MHz each for forward and reverse links provides a little more than 1,000 channels
in each direction for the total system, and correspondingly a little less than 150 per cell.

IS-54/IS-136
This standard is based on the AMPS system and is commercially known as digital-AMPS (D-AMPS).
It introduces TDM in the AMPS channels. It uses digital modulation (π/4 QPSK with speech
coding in TDMA). It was standardized from the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
in 1990 and it uses the same frequencies with AMPS as are used, but in every time slot up to three
full rate or six half rate users are multiplexed. The forward channel (downlink range) and reverse
channel (uplink range) frequency bands are 869–894 MHz and 824–849 MHz, respectively. The
final version of IS-54 Rev-C was called IS-136 and is still in use today.

1.8.2 Digital cellular mobile radio systems

While analogue cellular phone system (1G) was designed for analogue voice communication,
the digital cellular mobile radio system (2G) was mainly designed for digitized voice. There are a
number of different digital cellular technologies including the following:

• Global system for mobile communications (GSM)

• General-packet radio service (GPRS)
• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
• Evolution-data optimized (EV-DO)
• Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE)
• Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT)
• Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA)
• Integrated digital enhanced network (IDEN)

Two main groups have evolved in the digital cellular mobile radio system development.
One group is from Europe and another is from America. The digital cellular mobile radio systems
developed by the two groups are

• Global system for mobile communications (GSM) in Europe

• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)/Interim Standard (IS-95) in the United States

The above cellular systems (GSM and CDMA) are not compatible with each other.

[Link] Global system for mobile communications

It was developed in Europe in the year 1990. It provides a common 2G technology all over
Europe. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA techniques as access mechanism. In GSM, the bandwidth is
divided into time slots for better utilization of bandwidth. GSM operates in the 900 MHz band
(890–915 MHz for forward link and 935–960 MHz for reverse link channels) in Europe and Asia
and in the 1,900 MHz band in the United States. GSM uses two bands for duplex communication.
Each band is 25 MHz in width, shifted towards 900 MHz. Each band is divided into 125 channels
of 200 kHz separated by guard bands and each channel is subdivided into eight time slots or
sub channels. One timeslot must be allocated for control channel purposes; therefore, up to
24 Mobile Cellular Communication

seven subscribers can use a channel simultaneously. GSM users are almost eight times in number
than CDMA users worldwide and in India, Bharti Telecom (Airtel) provides GSM standard. GSM
mobile phone consists of two main components: handset and subscriber identity module (SIM).
SIM: The handset in a GSM system is different from analogue phones in that the identification
information of the subscriber is programmed into a SIM module and not in the handset. The
main functions of the handsets are receive/transmit and encoding and decoding of the voice
transmission. The SIM is a microcontroller embedded into a small piece of plastic. The SIM
card provides authentication, information storage, subscriber account information, and data
encryption. SIM chips and handsets are swappable.
GSM: This is a digital-wireless standard which uses TDMA technology as its air interface.
GSM has been deployed in the 900, 1,800, and 1,900 MHz bands. Each 25 MHz band provides
a total of 125 forward channels and 125 reverse channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of
200 kHz (25 MHz bandwidth/125 channels). Where each channel is subdivided into eight time
slots, or sub channels and the sub channel spacing is 25 kHz (200 kHz channel space divided
by eight time slots). Each channel is shared by eight users giving a total of 125 × 8 = 1,000 users
per cell.

Example problem 1.3

The global system for mobile (GSM) communications utilizes the frequency band 935–960 MHz
for the forward link and frequency range 890–915 MHz for the reverse link. Each 25-MHz band
is broken into radio channels of 200 kHz. Each radio channel consists of eight time slots. If no
guard band is assumed,

a) Find the number of simultaneous users that can be accommodated in GSM.

b) How many users can be accommodated if a guard band of 100 kHz is provided at the upper
and the lower end of the GSM spectrum? (Refer Section 1.8.2.)

Solution

a) The number of simultaneous users that can be accommodated in GSM in the first case is
equal to
b) In the second case the number of simultaneous users = 992.

Example problem 1.4

The 2G cellular system GSM 900 operates its 125 forward channels in the uplink frequency band
890.2–915 MHz and 125 reverse channels in the frequency band 935.2–960 MHz. Each channel
has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
a) What is the bandwidth in the forward channels (uplink frequency band) and reverse channels
(downlink frequency band)?
b) If each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots, what is the sub channel spacing?
c) If each channel is shared by 16 users then compute the total number of users per cell? (Refer
Section 1.8.2.)
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 25

Solution

a) Number of forward channels = Number of reverse channels = 125

Total number of channels = 125 + 125 = 250
Bandwidth of each channel allocated = 200 kHz
Bandwidth of uplink = bandwidth of downlink =
Number of channels × bandwidth of each channel = 125 × 200 kHz = 25 MHz
b) Number of time slots in each channel = 16
Sub channel spacing = channel space/time slots in each channel
= 200 kHz/16 = 12.5 kHz
c) Number of users shared in each channel =16
Total number of users per cell = 125 channels × 16 = 2000 users

[Link] CDMA or (IS-95)

The use of CDMA technology started in the United States in the year 1990. IS-95 is a standard
for CDMAone digital cellular where as CDMA2000 is a 3G specification (the North American
version of wideband CDMA), and is backward compatible with IS-95 systems. In India, Reliance
Communications (RCOM), BSNL, and Vodafone (formerly Hutch) serve more than 39.4 million
subscribers using CDMA technology.
CDMA is a unique access technology that separates subscriber calls from one another by a
pseudorandom noise (PRN) code instead of time or frequency. As a result, all available CDMA frequencies
can be used in every cell, thereby increasing the total number of available voice channels and the overall
system capacity.
CDMA is a wideband, spread-spectrum technology in which we allocate a unique code
for every user separately and allocate bandwidth to the user. Today, each CDMA carrier
can support around 22 voice calls. 3G CDMA2000 systems may deploy more carriers per
BS, possibly six to eight carriers to accommodate the additional bandwidth requirements.
CDMA networks have pilot channels, which carry no data but are used by the mobile phone
to acquire the system and assist in the process of SHOs and synchronization. Table 1.2
summarizes the differences among the basic analogue (AMPS) and digital (GSM and CDMA)
cellular systems that have been used. It gives an overview of the different mobile phone
systems or cellular technologies that are in use today and those that have been used over the
years. Although not every cellular technology is included, those that have been more widely
used are included.

Channel Spacing in CDMA systems

Channel spacing refers to the actual bandwidth space that is allocated for every wireless channel
out of the total amount of spectrum allocated to a wireless carrier. In AMPS, the channel spacing
is 30 kHz. Each uplink and downlink channel occupies 30 kHz of bandwidth. Every AMPS cellular
call actually occupies a total of 60 kHz. GSM systems allot their radio spectrum in 200 kHz
carriers, where each carrier allocates 25 kHz to uplink or downlink. CDMA, by definition, is
unique when it comes to channel spacing. In the most technical, literal sense, channel spacing
in a CDMA system is 1.25 MHz because all calls that are carried on a 1.25 MHz CDMA carrier are
spread out over the entire swath of that carrier. That is why CDMA is known as a spread spectrum
technology.
26 Mobile Cellular Communication

Table 1.2 Comparison of AMPS, GSM, and CDMA standards

Name AMPS GSM IS-95 CDMA
Generation 1 2 2
Year introduced and 1983 US 1992/1994 Germany 1993 US
origin place
Frequency band (MHz) Uplink 824–849 890–915/1850–1910 824–849/1850–1910
(BS receiving) Down link (BS 869–894 935–960/1930–1990 869–894/1930–1990
transmission)
Multiple access scheme FDMA TDMA,FDMA CDMA
Bandwidth/channel 30 kHz 200 kHz 1.25 MHz
Modulation type FM GMSK QPSK & OQPSK
Number of channels/carrier 1 8 85
Total channels 832 1000 1700

Details of Forward and Reverse CDMA Channels

The CDMA standard details are illustrated in Table 1.2. It uses two frequency bands (800 and
1900 MHz bands) for duplex communication. These bands are designated as ISM 800 MHz
band or the ISM 1900 MHz band. Each band (25 MHz) is divided into 20 channels of 1.228
MHz each separated by guard bands. Each service provider is allotted 10 channels. The forward
and reverse CDMA channels used in the ISM 800 MHz frequency band are 824–849/1850–1910
MHz for uplink/downlink respectively. Similarly, the forward and reverse CDMA channels
used in the ISM 1900MHz frequency band are 869–894/1930–1990 for uplink/downlink,
respectively.
A more detailed description about the analogue and digital cellular systems is given in
Chapter 21. All these methods rely on a distributed network of cell sites using frequency reuse
concept.

1.9 Existing mobile communication technologies

and current status
The following are some examples of mobile communication systems currently in use in addition
to the cellular radio networks.

1.9.1 Paging
Radio paging is a low-cost service used for sending information to a person on move. Paging
system consists of a BS that broadcasts the paging messages in the form of numeric digits (e.g.
a telephone number), alphanumeric text messages or even voice messages to a service area.
From the radio paging BS the transmission of data is one-way. The BS is interfaced to a paging
controller (Fig. 1.21). The message is composed by an operator who receives the message from a
user through a telephone. The message is broadcast through the BS using transmission medium.
If the service area is very large, this system requires high-powered transmitters and low data rates
for maximum coverage of each transmitter’s designated area.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 27

PSTN
Paging Pager
Internet paging Paging
base
terminal controller Pager
station
interface

Operator

Figure 1.21 Paging system

The paging standard started in 1G and continued up to 2G systems.

Various pagers in use are numeric pager which displays only numeric data (such as a telephone
number), alphanumeric pager which displays alphanumeric text, and voice pager that supports
voice paging.

1.9.2 Communication satellites

A communication satellite provides long distance wireless communication and is similar to
LOS microwave transmission in which one of the stations is a satellite orbiting the earth. The
satellite acts like a tall antenna and repeater system (Fig. 1.22). Satellite system consists of
number of transponders which allow radio, television, and telephone transmissions to be
sent live to anywhere in the world. Satellite systems can make services available to airborne
and sea-based users where cellular mobile communication provides service to world’s land
mass only.
Satellite systems are also playing a crucial role in mobile communications by providing coverage
in zones where land-based infrastructures are unable or ineffective to supply mobile services.
Mobile satellite communications began in 1976 with the launch by COMSAT of the MARISAT
satellites to provide communications to ships at sea. Mobile satellite communication systems
are used for transmitting point-to-point voice and data communications using a constellation
of satellites. These systems include a number of user terminals,
several terrestrial ground stations or gateways and a number
of satellites for bi-directionally coupling the user terminals to
terrestrial telecommunication networks and the Internet via the
gateways.
Mobile satellite communication system, for example, Iridium
low earth orbit (LEO) satellite system with 66 satellites, Globalstar
satellites, and Ellipso mobile satellite system.
The main drawback of satellite communication systems is
Figure 1.22 Point to point
communication that they have quite a large propagation delay due to the distances
through satellite travelled by radio waves.

1.9.3 Wireless local loop (WLL)

Wireless local loop (WLL) is a cellular-like phone without mobility. These are designed for fixed
communications in situations where it is easier, cheaper, or more advantageous than wire line
28 Mobile Cellular Communication

connections and are often based on cellular or cordless technologies. WLL employs a cellular like
technology where the subscriber unit is fixed, like a wire line telephone, replacing the “local loop”
between the exchange and the subscriber’s home with a wireless link. They use the same basic
architecture and principles of radio transmission. There are a number of problems with WLL when
compared to the landline services. They are as follows:

• Voice quality is typically inferior.

• Data rates provided are typically lower.
• Call costs are typically more expensive.

1.9.4 Personal handy phone

Personal handy-phone system (PHS) has been in existence in Japan for years and operates in
the 1880–1920 MHz spectrum. PHS is similar to cellular networks. However, PHS phones can
also communicate directly with one another when in range. This is an advantage over cellular
phones, which can only communicate with one another via BS transceivers. This system is very
popular in heavily populated metropolitan areas.

A PHS device functions as a cordless phone in the home and as a

mobile phone elsewhere.

1.9.5 Mobile radio

Mobile radio is a half-duplex analogue communication system that
uses single frequencies for sending and receiving signals. In mobile
radio system, a button must be pressed to switch modes (Fig. 1.23).
Figure 1.23 Mobile
They are used for emergency services such as police control rooms
radio
and the security industry.

1.9.6 Cordless phones

These are designed for indoor and office applications. The initial
application of cordless phones (Fig. 1.24(a)) was as an extension to
the fixed line in a home. The cordless BS is plugged into the home
phone socket and provides a radio link to the handset and does not
transfer well to outdoor, cellular-type systems. They are typically
Figure 1.24(a) Cordless much simpler than cellular phones using lower power transmission
phone and higher bit-rate speech coders.

1.9.7 DECT
Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT) (Fig. 1.24(b)) is a multicarrier/TDMA/TDD
radio access system standard for cordless communications in residential, corporate, and public
environments. DECT system consists of three components: (i) phone network, (ii) a BS, which is
connected to the phone line socket and (iii) multiple number of mobile handsets. These mobile
handsets are used as normal “cordless” phones. DECT system allows several cordless telephones
to communicate with each other (internal) and to external network. The main advantage is that
the additional handsets do not require additional telephone sockets or additional transceivers.
DECT frequency band: DECT operates in the 1880–1900 MHz band and defines ten channels
from 1881.792 MHz to 1897.344 MHz with a band gap of 1728 kHz. Each BS frame provides 12
duplex speech channels with each time slot occupying any of channels.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 29

Figure 1.24(b) A base station and multiple

handsets in

The following are the advantages of DECT:

i) Security: All communications between base and handset are encrypted with a set of keys
which are renewed for each call.
ii) Long range without interference: DECT range is at least 300 m in free space (typical 450 m), and
reaches easily 50 m with an in-door base. It does not interfere with the 2.4 GHz WiFi band.
iii) Low power consumption: The DECT technology is simple and efficient. BSs use typically less
than 3W of operating power, and handsets operate with two AAA rechargeable batteries.
iv) High efficiency of spectrum use: It can manage without any frequency planning a full array of
bases every 10 m. No risk of interference, even if all neighbours are using DECT.
v) GSM/DECT internetworking: Part of the DECT standard describes how it can interact with the
GSM standard so that users can be free to move with a telephone from the outdoors (and
GSM signals) into an indoor environment (and a DECT system). It is expected that many
GSM service providers may want to extend their service to support DECT signals inside
buildings. A dual-mode phone would automatically search first for a DECT connection, then
for a GSM connection if DECT is not available.
vi) Home cordless phones: A home owner could install a single-cell antenna within the home and
use it for a number of cordless phones throughout the home and garden.

1.9.8 Bluetooth
Bluetooth wireless technology is an open specification for a low-cost, low-power, short-range
radio technology for ad hoc wireless communication of voice and data anywhere in the world.
It was developed as a new cable replacement technology, which provides a short-range (<10 m),
low bit rate (<1 Mbps) access in the 2.4 GHz spectrum. It is also known as wireless personal area
network (WPAN) for short-range and low mobility applications around a room in the office or
at home. A Bluetooth WPAN involves up to eight devices, located within a 10 m radius personal
operating space, that unite to exchange information or share services (Fig. 1.24(c)). Because
connectivity can be done spontaneously according to immediate need, Bluetooth is also known
as ad hoc networking. Because a WPAN involves directly networking between different points,
without the use of network infrastructure, it is also referred to as a “point-to-point network”.
Laptop to mobile phone connectivity: A mobile phone can communicate with a computer
through a phone’s vendor-specific cable, infrared, or Bluetooth. The latter two depend on both
devices’ hardware capabilities. Figure 1.24(d) presents a typical scheme for a laptop connecting
to a server through the mobile phone and the cellular network. For laptop to mobile phone
connectivity, the Bluetooth solution was selected for the following reasons: (i) compared to
infrared, it does not have the restriction of having the phone being in the LOS of the laptop’s
sensor, (ii) compared to cable, it does not require the phone to be physically attached to the
30 Mobile Cellular Communication

laptop and restricted to the cable’s length and (iii) with Bluetooth, the phone only needs to be in
a range of a few metres (<10) from the laptop.

Bluetooth uses a technique called spread-spectrum frequency hopping.

The important specifications of Bluetooth technology are illustrated in Table 1.3.
Advantages of Bluetooth technology are as follows:

• Wireless (no Cables)

• No setup needed
• Devices can be movable
• Industry wide support
• Easier synchronization due to omni-directional and no LOS requirement

Disadvantages of Bluetooth technology are as follows:

• Short range wireless radio technology operates in the range of 10 m

• Small throughput rates – data rate 1.0 Mbps
• mostly for personal use (PANs)
• fairly expensive

A more detailed description about Bluetooth technology is given in Chapter 27.

Figure 1.24(c) Bluetooth communication between portable devices

Headset
Cellular network
Mobile phone

Laptop

Mouse Printer

Figure 1.24(d) Typical scheme for a laptop connecting to a server through

the mobile phone and the cellular network.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 31

Table 1.3 Bluetooth technology specifications

Connection type Spread spectrum (Frequency hopping)
Multiple access control scheme FH-CDMA
Spectrum 2.4 GHz ISM
Modulation Gaussian frequency shift keying
Transmission power 1 mw–100 mw
Aggregate data rate 1 Mbps
Range 30 ft
Supported stations 8 devices
Voice channels 3
Data security- Authentication key 128 bit key
Data security-encryption key 8–128 bits (configurable)

1.9.9 Current status of cellular radio

Tremendous changes are occurring in the area of wireless communications. With the rising
demand for mobile communications, 3G systems have emerged, providing higher date rate to
facilitate new multimedia applications such as video telephony and wireless Internet access. There
are three primary standards that comprise 3G technology: W-CDMA, CDMA2000, and TD-CDMA.
The mobile phone of yesterday is rapidly turning into a sophisticated mobile device capable of
more applications than PCs. For example, the data rates provided by 3G networks enable a user
to enjoy wireless access to the Internet at speeds up to 1.8 Mbps. Further enhancements in high
speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) modulation schemes will soon increase this speed to
greater than 10 Mbps.
Presently, we see 3G cell phones hitting the markets. In China, the 3G service is already
in existence. The 3G has also reached India recently. The existence of several diverse 3G
standards limits seamless global roaming between different cellular networks for a mobile
user with a single handset. In addition, there is a fundamental difference between wireless
cellular networks (1G, 2G, or 3G) and wireless data networks such as WLANs and PANs. The
difference is that wireless cellular systems are circuit-switched while wireless data networks are
packet-switched. Convergence issues for these differences between the wireless cellular systems
and the wireless data networks will be addressed in the design of 4G cellular networks. It is
projected that 4G networks will provide users with seamless wireless access to voice, data,
and video services irrespective of which wireless network they belong to. A 4G system will be
able to provide a comprehensive IP solution where voice, data, and streamed multimedia can
be given to users on an “anytime, anywhere” basis, and at higher data rates than previous
generations. 4G will be capable of providing data rates between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps both
indoors and outdoors.
As the 2G was a total replacement of the 1G networks and handsets and the 3G was a
total replacement of 2G networks and handsets, in the same way the 4G is also a complete
replacement of the current 3G networks and handsets. The ITU regulatory and standardization
bodies are working for commercial deployment of 4G networks roughly in the 2012–2015 time
scale.
32 Mobile Cellular Communication

1.10 Summary
The advent of the cellular concept is a crucial contribution in the development of mobile
communication. A cell is viewed as the coverage area of a particular land site. Each cell within a
cluster is allocated a distinct set of frequencies (channels).
These systems were called “cellular” because large coverage areas were split into smaller areas
or “cells”. Each cell is served by a low power transmitter and receiver. The important points
introduced in this chapter are summarized below.
• Cellular standards and evolution of mobile from 1G–4G: The service providers must use one of
the approved cellular standards for developing the cellular network in that region. These
standards are mutually agreed upon rules adopted by the industry on how the cell phone
system operates. These standards describe the air interface, that is how cell phones and BSs
must communicate with each other. These mutually agreed upon standards change over
time, as technology progresses.
• Before 1G, 0G refers to pre-cellular mobile phone technology.
• 1G was an analogue technology. In 1G, speech was converted to an FM signal and
transmitted back and forth from user phones.
• 2G cellular networks used digital technology and provided enhanced services (e.g.
messaging, caller-id, etc.). There were two 2G standards that service providers could
choose between GSM based on TDMA and IS-95 based on CDMA.
• Most of the present cellular systems are 2.5G. They offer enhanced services over second
generation systems (e.g. e-mailing, web-browsing, etc.).
• Presently, service providers are setting up 3G cellular systems. The idea behind 3G is
to have a single network standard instead of the different types adopted in the United
States, Europe, and Asia. 3G offers higher data rates than 2.5G. 3G allows users to send/
receive pictures, video clips, and so on.
• 4G is the evolution based on 3G’s limitations and it will fulfil the idea of WWWW
(World Wide Wireless Web) offering more services and smooth global roaming with
inexpensive cost.
• Frequency reuse: This is the process in which the same set of frequencies (channels) can
be allocated to more than one cell to increase the system capacity. Instead of deploying a
powerful BS in a large coverage area, the area is divided into multiple smaller cells and a BS
deployed in each cell can use smaller transmit power. Thus, two transmissions can employ
the same frequency if they are far away enough such that the CCI level is below a desired
threshold.
• Handoff: A crucial component of the cellular concept is the notion of handoffs. Handoff is
the process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile unit moves
from one cell to the other. Handoff operation involves identifying a new BS and allocation
of voice and control signals associated.
• Multiple access techniques: In many wireless systems, multiple transmitters attempt to
communicate with the same receiver. For example, in cellular systems, cell phone users in a
local area typically communicate with the same cell tower. The limited spectrum has to be
shared among these local transmitters. In such cases, the system adopts a multiple access
policy. Three widely used policies are FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 33

Review questions
1. Why does the mobile phone cell – the basic geographic unit of cellular system – have a
hexagonal shape?
2. Describe the principle of operation of cellular mobile system and explain the “cellular”
concept with a neat diagram.
3. What is meant by 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G, and 4G cellular systems?
4. Name the wireless access techniques used in 1G, 2G, and 3G wireless systems.
5. Describe the analogue and digital cellular land mobile systems and the limitations of AMPS
standard.
6. Compare the basic technological differences between the GSM and CDMA standards.
7. What is the fundamental difference between wireless cellular networks (1G, 2G, or 3G) and
wireless data networks?
8. List the main features of 3G systems.
9. Explain neatly how the 4G technology is projected to provide users with seamless wireless
access to voice, data, and video services irrespective of which wireless network they belong to.
10. What are the various mobile phone technologies that are existing in addition to the cellular
networks?
11. Describe the functions of base station in a cellular network.
12. Mention the various components of a cellular network and describe them briefly.
13. What are the various multiple access and duplexing schemes used in cellular networks?
14. What are the applications of a satellite system?
15. What is a page and give the benefits of a page system?
16. What are the various types of mobile radio transmission systems in use?
17. State the reason why 800 MHz is selected for mobiles initially.
18. The 2G system GSM 900 has 125 channels in the uplink and 125 reverse channels in the
downlink. Each channel has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
a) What is the total bandwidth occupied in both the uplink and downlink communications.
(Ans: 50 MHz)
b) If each channel is subdivided into 16 time slots, what is the sub-channel spacing?
(Ans:16.66 kHz)
c) If each channel is shared by 16 users then compute the total number of users per cell?
(Ans: 1,500)
19. Describe the features of AMPS and compare with those of present-day systems. (Refer
Section 1.8)
20. Briefly explain the evaluation of the analogue and digital cellular mobile systems. (Refer
Section 1.8)
21. Differentiate between the generations in the cordless phones and cellular phones. (Refer
Sections 1.9 )
22. A total of 33 MHz of BW is allocated to a particular FDD which uses two 25 kHz simplex
channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the number of
channels available per cell, if a system uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse, and (c) 12-
cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine
an equitable distribution of control and voice channels in each cell for each of the three
systems. (Refer Section 1.6) [Ans: (a) 165 (b) 95 (c) 55]
23. Explain the history of 800-MHz spectrum allocation to a cellular system. (Refer Section 1.8.2)
34 Mobile Cellular Communication

24. Differentiate between the analogue and digital cellular systems with their operating
capacities. (Refer Section 1.8)
25. Explain the operation of a cellular system in detail (Refer Section 1.4).

Objective type questions and answers

1. The following concept refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to
cover different areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances.
(a) frequency reuse (b) handoff (c) cell splitting (d) cell geometry
2. The process of transferring an active call from one cell to another as the mobile unit moves
from the first cell to the other cell without disconnecting the call.
(a) frequency reuse (b) handoff (c) cell splitting (d) cell geometry
3. The interference received from co-channel cells is called
(a) co-channel interference (b) frequency reuse
(c) handoff (d) cell splitting
4. The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as _____________ and is determined from the
field measurements
(a) footprint (b) cluster (c) capacity (d) channel
5. The following method is used as the access technology for global system for mobile (GSM)
communications
(a) FDMA (b) TDMA (c) CDMA (d) SDMA
6. The mobile technology using general packet radio service (GPRS) standard has been termed
as
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G
7. The cellular radio system that was mainly designed for digitized voice.
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G
8. The mobile phone system that was analogue and it only carried voice traffic
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 2.5G
9. The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to
(a) number of times a cluster is replicated in a fixed service area
(b) number of cells in the cluster
(c) Number of channels in the cell
(d) none of the above
10. The systems were “cellular” because coverage areas were split into _____________ each of
which is served by a low power transmitter and receiver.
(a) cells (b) cluster (c) capacity (d) channels
11. Larger cells are more useful in _____________.
(a) densely populated urban areas (b) rural areas
(c) lightly populated urban areas (d) mountainous areas
12. The following cellular technology will bring almost perfect real world wireless or called
“WWWW: World Wide Wireless Web”
(a) 1G (b) 2G (c) 3G (d) 4G
13. The two 3G systems developed are
(a) GSM, CDMA (b) AMPS, CDMA
(c) UMTS, IMT-2000 (d) CDMAone, UMTS
 Introduction to Mobile and Cellular Communication Systems 35

Answers: 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b)
12. (d) 13. (c)

Open book questions

1. What are the limitations of conventional mobile telephone system and what are the
classifications of wireless communication systems?
2. Distinguish between 1G and 2G cellular networks. Define a cell and cluster.
3. What are the channels used in mobile communication systems?
4. What are the basic units of a cellular system?
5. What is cell splitting?
6. Explain the cellular concept neatly in terms of frequency reuse (refer Section 1.4).
7. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of cell structures?
8. Describe various types of mobile radio transmission systems in use with examples.
9. Write the features of DECT.
10. What are the limitations of conventional mobile systems?
11. Explain inefficient spectrum utilization based on the existing mobile systems MTS and IMTS.
12. Draw the schematic and present the working of the cellular system.
13. Briefly explain cell shape and handoff.

Further reading
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th edition, New Delhi: Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Ltd., 2006.
Couch, L.W. “Complex Envelope Representations for Modulated Signals”, in Suthan S. Suthersan
(ed.) Mobile Communications Handbook, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999.
Dinan, E. H., and Jabbari, B. Spreading codes for direct sequence CDMA and wide band CDMA
cellular networks. IEEE Communications Magazine, September 1998.
Garg, V. K., and Wilkes, J. E. Wireless and Personal Communications Systems. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996.
Garg, V. K., and Wilkes, J. E. Principles and Applications of GSM. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1998.
Husni Hammuda, Cellular Mobile Radio Systems, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
Negus, K., Stephens, A., and Lansford, J. Home RF: Wireless networking for the connected home.
IEEE Personal Communications, February 2000, pp. 20–27.
Nikula, E., Toshala, A., Dahlman, E., Girard, L., and Klein, A. FRAMES multiple access for UMTS
and IMT-2000. IEEE Personal Communications Magazine, April 1998, pp. 16–24.
Pirhonen, R., Rautava, T., and Pentinen, J. TDMA convergence for packet data services. IEEE
Personal Communications Magazine, vol. 6, no. 3, June 1999, pp. 68–73.
Rapeli, J. UMTS: Targets, system concepts, and standardization in a global framework. IEEE
Personal Communications, February 1995.
Report from UMTS forum, The European path towards UMTS, IEEE Personal Communications
Magazine. Special Issue, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 1995.