SHUBHRA RANJAN IAS STUDY

ONLINE PSIR ANSWER WRITING SKILL DEVELOPMENT CUM

TEST SERIES 2017 – 2018

MODEL ANSWER FOR TEST 1: WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

(PLATO, ARISTOTLE, MACHIAVELLI)

Q1. What do you understand by political thought? How it is distinguished from

political theory and political philosophy?

Answer:

The terms like Political thought, political theory and political philosophy forms the
core of political science. Although all these terms are used interchangeably, yet there
is a considerable difference between these terms.

Political Thought: The term political is derived from the Greek word “Polis” which
means state. In Greek sense political is equal to public. Thought is understood with
reference to space and time. Thus, political thought deals with all the concepts or
ideas related to Government of particular age. Eg. Ancient Indian Thought, Medieval
Indian Thought or Modern Western Thought.

Political Theory: The term theory stands for “Systematic Knowledge”. Political
theory describes, explains, and evaluates political events and institutions. The word
political theory thus represents the systematic study of Political Phenomena. In
broad sense, political theory can be viewed from two perspectives.

1. Political Theory based on Empirical Method

2. Political Theory based on Philosophical method
Empirical Method essentially deals with the political institutions and political
behaviour. Its method is observation, experimentation and quantification. Major focus
is on study of facts.

Emirical political theory is concerned with “What is” rather than “What ought to
be”. This type of political theory is descriptive in nature rather than prescriptive.
Thus, it tries to be value-free or value-neutral.

Philosophical Method is normative in nature. Philosophical theory is closely

related to philosophy or meta-ethics.

Political philosophy is mainly concerned with the normative concepts and ideas like
Justice, Democracy, Rights, Authority etc. It is concerned with “What ought to be”
rather than “What is”. Through this it aims to achieve ultimate good or purpose of
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life. Eg. Plato’s Republic (Justice), Rawls theory of justice,Isaiah Berlin’s Theory of
liber

Q 2. "Plato’s communism is a heroic remedy for a desperate evil the union of

political power and economic temptation in the same hands" Explain

Answer:

According to Plato, the reason behind the fall of Athens was corruption. In order to
keep the rulers free from corruption Plato has prescribed a typical style of living which
is known as communism of property & communism of family for the guardian
class.

Under this system, the rulers will keep minimum goods for their daily use. They will
live together & will not keep any private property. So, in this sense the rulers will follow
the principle of communism of property.

Rulers are not allowed to have any private families. All rulers will be isolated from the
ordinary population & enter into group marriage. All newly born children will be taken
in state custody.

In plato‘s view family is a bigger problem than property. It is for family that people
want to earn money. Family leads to not only corruption but also nepotism,
favouritism. Plato has an additional purpose with communism of family i.e
[Link] ablest men will be permitted to marry ablest women so that the best race
emerges. There is also an indirect consequence of Plato‘s communism of family i.e.
liberation of women. Women were unable to participate the affairs of city state because
they have been completely involved in family. Once free they can devote themselves
to the service of state.

Aristotle has criticised Plato‘s idea of communism. He views family and property
from functionalist perspective. Aristotle held that Plato‘s system of communism of
property is not desirable. If there are some problems with private property then there
are some advantages as well. Private property gives a sense of achievement,
motivation to work hard, scope for charity. Those who have property, are men of
reasons ,would like peace & stability in society. Similarity family is also time tested
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institution, family gives emotional stability. Abolishing family will be taking us backward
and not forward,when men use to live in barbaric age.

We can conclude that, Plato‘s diagnosis about evils created by property and family are
correct but his prescription are wrong. Rather, we think of such legislations and
institutions that bring transperancy and accountability in public life.

Q 3. “Indeed it is generally true that it is difficult for men to live together & to be
partners in any form of human activity but it is specially difficult to do so
when property is involved“ Explain

Answer:Aristotle’s the statement is criticism of Plato‘s theory of communism of

property and defence of private ownership of property by applying functionalist
approach. Aristotle held that ownership of property gives a sense of security and an
urge to increase one‘s wealth. It is an instrument of hospitality, generousity, friendship
& affection.

Aristotle has analysed three systems of property

1. Common ownership & common use (communism). Aristotle has not

supported this system because according to Aristotle, everyone‘s property is
no one‘s resposibility. According to him, it is difficult business for the people to
stay together but it is more difficult when the question of property is involved.
2. Common ownership & individual use: It is neither logical not practicable and
if comes in practice will lead to much exploitation.
3. Individual ownership & common use: Aristotle supports this system on the
principle of golden mean. Because it is more productive. Property acts as a
source of motivation to work hard. Men of property means men of reason, so
good for stability and source of charity. He belives that men is by nature a
political-social animal and society contributes in well being of man in multiple
ways so man should also contribute to thew society.

In order to minimize the evils associated with property, he suggest that rich person
should keep moderate wealth which is enough to lead a good life. Since man is by
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nature a political animal & society plays role in development of man, man is
expected to pay back to the society.

We can find similarity in Aristotle‘s theory of property with Gandhi’s concept of

trusteeship. Gandhi did not favour abolition of private property. Gandhi held that
capitalist class should not consider itself as the owner of capital but the trustee of the
capital. In Indian context the concept of CSR i.e. Corporate social responsibility comes
near to the idea.

Q4. The divorce between the principles of Religion and those of Politics in the
writings of Machiavelli is more apparent than real. Comment.

Answer:

‘Every thinker is the child of his times’’(laski) This statement is most appropriate in
case of Machiavelli. Machiavelli is truly called as the “Child of Renaissance“.

During the time of Machiavelli, Italy was house divided against itelf. Italy was divided
into five principalities and it lacked political unity. It was prone to external threats .
Machiavelli desired unification and the Glorification of Italy. Machiavelli felt that it is the
church has kept Italy divided. The Church had become a corrupt institution and church
controlled all walks of life like birth, marriage, death etc.

Thus, Machiavelli divorced religion from politics and separated them completely from
each other. He even tried to subordinate religion to the state. Machiavelli
recommended the rule of strong monarch with an ironhand.

In "Prince" the most celebrated work of Machiavelli one can see a theoretical break
from the philosophy of Medieval Age which is centred around religion. Machiavelli
is called asfather of Real Politik because he uncovered the "Power view of Politics"
in his book “Prince“.

Religion, morality and politics became the three bedrock principles of Machiavelli‘s
political thought. Machiavelli advises the prince not to act according to the tunes of the
pope. Machiavelli even suggests that Prince can go against religion and morality when
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needed. Machiavelli‘s famous maxim is “End Justifies the means,“ which means
prince can adopt any means to achieve the end.

However, there is a dispute over Machiavelli‘s attitude towards conventional moral and
religious standards of human cnduct. Due to Machiavelli‘s suggestions to leader to
avoid the common values of justice, mercy, wisdom and love, Leo Strauss calls him
‘Teacher of evil.’ A moderate school of thought associated with Benedetto Croce
views Machaivelli simply as a Realist or Pragmatist advocating suspension of ethics
only in case of politics. The mildest view on Machaivelli is of Skinner . For him,
Machaivelli simply making difference between facts of political life and values of moral
judgment. The Prince ought to remain good if he can but he must be prepared to
commit evil if he must.

Thus, the degree of seperation between religion and politics in Machaivelli

remains a matter of debate.

Q.5 “Plato‘s philosophy is the most savage & most profound attack on liberal
ideas which history can show“. (Crossman) discuss.

Answer:

Context of the statement is criticism of Plato for imparting anti – democratic values in
his ideal state. Plato hated democracy. The reasons behind plato‘s hatred for
democracy is linked with the incident of Socrate’s life, when he was ordered to drink
Hemlock by the Democrats , as well as Plato‘s admiration for military discipline
prevailing in Sparta.

At that time, Athens was in the state of decline. Plato held that the reason behind the
fall of Athens was the ignorance of the ruling class. And after doing all the analysis he
came to the conclusion that the rule of demagoges must be replaced by rule of
knowledge because knowledge is virtue. He held that once philosopher king is
installed, he must be given absolute power because no law or ordinance is mightier
than knowledge.
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The scholars find the roots of totalitarianism in the works of Plato. One of the most
extensive criticism of plato comes from Karl Popper. The volume 1 of his book "Open
Society & its Enemy" subtitled "The spell of Plato", projects Plato a totalitarian
thinker.

Popper held that Plato was a champion of closed society. Closed society is one, in
which no right to freedom of speech ande expression or social mobility is allowed.
Plato is not even ready to accept new ideas of citizen. Winspear called Plato's
Republic as a blueprint of authoritarianism. Toynbee called Plato as fascist. CEM
Joad also compared Platonism with fascism.

But, Popper’s understannding was thus questioned by admirers of Plato like

Levinson. Levinson in his book "In defence of Plato", admitted that fascism and
plato differ in time and space and we are comparing the uncomparables Rajiv
Bhargav also held that Popper‘s analysis of Plato was misleading and Popper is
ideologically biased.

To conclude we can say that Plato‘s ideas remained utopia. His opposition to
democracy was a part of his project to establish rule of knowledge. He was deeply
concerned with the welfare of people which is the ultimate end of democracy.

In the present situation, Plato‘s idea of establishing the rule of knowledge is certainly
admirable. But, his stand to give absolute powers to the rulers implied stagnation &
denial of freedom to citizens.

Q.6 “The more perfect the admixture of the political elements, the more lasting
will be the constitution.“ Explain.

Answer:

If Plato is known for perfection, Aristotle i knownnfor best practicable. The

ultimate aim of a constitution is well organization of political elements. If it will not be
achieved properly it will lead to dissatisfaction among people which leads to revolution
and put political stability under threat.
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In order to overcome all the above problem he has studied 158 constitution & came
up with the idea that is polity is the best practicable form of government which is
based on the principle of golden mean. Golden mean implies that virtue of character
lies in finding a middle path between two extremes which will otherwise turn out to be
vices. Buddhism also commends 'middle path' as the road to virtue.

Aristotle has given six basic forms of constitution. He has classified constitution on two
parameters i.e. objective of government & number of persons ruling. In his
classification monarchy is the best but not best practicable. Monarchy will turn into
tyranny i.e. the worst from of govt.

In contrast, Polity is the rule of middle class in the interest of the people & it is the
best practicable form of govt. It represents the golden mean of oligarchy &
democracy. Oligarchy is rule of rich but it will not be stable. Democracy is also not
stable because it is rule of ignorants. Poors suffer from ignorance & rich from
arrogance, hence neither of the two is in the habit of obedience to law. Middle classes
have reason as well as moderate wealth. Polity avoids two extrems of richness &
poverty, the extreme of ignorance and arrogance & provide statbility & order in society.

To conclude we can see the inherent message given by Aristotle that the society
where huge inequality exists are not stable & more prone to internal conspiracy
& external threats and the society where more number of persons are in middle class
are stable.

Q. 7 Machiavelli is perhaps the most universally reprobated figure in the

history of political literature; the man whose percepts are universally
disavowed in principle but regularly followed in practise. [Maxey]
comment.

Answer:

It is said that, perhaps no other political thinker is as criticised as Machiavelli in the

annals of Political Philosophy. Machiavellianism is extensively used as a negative term
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to characterize unpricipled politicians of the sort as Machiavelli described in prince.

Machiavellian became a byword for treachery, sneakness, ambition and ruthlessness.

Machiavelli is known for his “Political Realism“. Machiavelli is the first person to
uncover the power view of politics. According to Machiavelli politics is management
of power. In the writings of Machiavelli there is no scope for Idealism or utopianism.
Machiavelli focussed on what it is rather than what ought to be in his writings.
Perhaps no other thinker expressed his/her views as explicitly and openly as of
Machiavelli. It is very unfortunate that Machiavelli was heavily criticised for telling the
reality of politics.

Machiavelli is mainly criticised for his seperation of ethics from politics. Machiavelli
established politics as a profession having its own political standards. Hence politics
and ethics as to be judged seperately. Machiavelli is also criticised for his dictim Ends
justify the means. . Gandhi has criticised Machiavelli for separation of politics
and ethics.

Machiavelli portrayed human nature in a very pessimistic manner like humans are
selfish, fickle-minded, greedy by nature and Prince should use this opportunity to the
fullest extent possible. He also said that every human is a power seeking animal and
power is a means and power is an end in itself.

His views are many a times called as narrowly dated and narrowly located ‘Sabine’.
And his views were only applicable to Italy of his times. However, in real world, it is
difficult to see people who plays politics with fair hands, yet no one accepts that. Thus,
it can be concluded that every one criticises Machiavelli, but in practise every one is
more Machiavellian than Machiavelli.

Also, we have to note that, Machiavelli is not Anti-Religion. Machiavelli was against
the interference of church in the state affairs. At the time when church controlled the
state, Machiavelli challenged this view by proposing strict seperation between Religion
and politics in his work “The Prince“. His prescriptions are not for achieving personal
ends of Prince but for betterment of state. Thus, Machiavelli deserve to be known as
greatest patriot of all times.
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Q. 8 The politics of Aristotle is the greatest contribution in the field of political

science that we posses. Discuss.

Answer:

If Plato is known as father of political philosophy , Aristotle is known as father

of political science. In the field of ethics & politics Aristotle held that the
understanding of the natural and essential aims of human being would be the guiding
principles of moral & political practise.

Aristotle has not only given the basics of science of politics but made a significant
contribution to its development which is given in his famous work Politics. His works
on deal with some important issues related to politics, justice, law, equality &
classification of constitutions. Aristotle held that political science as master science
because it served the end of human life while other sciences merely provide for
suitable means to achieve ends.

Aristotle treated the state as a moral as well as a natural institution. He supported

organic theory of state & maintained that the relation between individual andf state
was similar to that between an organ & the organism i.e. the body.

Aristotle has the practical bent of mind. He does not look for perfection. He believes
that one has to be worldly wise rather than wise in world of ideas. He believes that
idea and matter exist together.

Plato‘s book Republic is encyclopedia in nature where as Aristotle‘s book Politics is

focused on the issues of political life. In his theory of constitutions, he has applied
empirical approach. There are many ideas in like constitutionalism revolutions which
are very important for any student of political science. He has given the theory of
constitution and causes for revolution after studying 158 constitutions, recommended
the doctrine of golden rule i.e. polity is the best practicable form of government.

We also see the origin of Comparative Politics in Aristotle. White Head held that
entire western philosophy is foot note of Aristotle & Plato.