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in

Module 4 -Op-amp With Negative Feedback and General Applications

Syllabus: (i) Inverting and Non inverting Amplifiers – Closed Loop voltage gain, Input impedance, Output impedance,
Bandwidth with feedback. (ii) DC and AC Amplifiers, Summing, Scaling and Averaging Amplifiers (iii) Instrumentation amplifier
(iv) Comparators, Zero Crossing Detector, Schmitt trigger.

4.1 -Introduction to Feedback Concepts:

Operational amplifiers are operated in open loop as well as closed loop configurations. Open loop operation has a
limited scope and not suited for linear applications due to the following reasons. (a) Since the open loop gain of the op-amp
is very high, only smaller signals (of the order microvolts or less) having very low frequency may amplified accurately
without distortion. (b) The open loop gain of the op-amp is not constant and it varies with changes in temperature and
power supply. (c) The bandwidth of the open loop op-amp is negligibly small – almost zero (for 741 op-amp, it is 5Hz).

Feedback plays an important role in almost all electronic circuits and is invariably used in amplifiers to improve
its performance and to make it more ideal. An op-amp that uses feedback is called feedback amplifier. A feedback
amplifier is also called as a closed loop amplifier, since feedback forms a closed loop between the input and the output. In
the process of feedback, a part of the output (which can be current or voltage) is sampled and fed back to the input of the
amplifier. Hence at the input, there are two signals: input signal and the part of the output which is fed back to the input
(feedback signal).Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase.

Hence there are two categories of feedback as – (i) Positive feedback (ii) Negative feedback

(i) Positive Feedback: When the input (ii) Negative Feedback: When the input signal
signal and feedback signal are in-phase and feedback signal are out of phase (feedback
(feedback signal is added with input signal is subtracted from input signal), then the
signal), then the feedback is known as feedback is known as negative feedback. Ex: For
Positive feedback. Ex: Oscillators uses linear operations negative feedback is used.
positive feedback Amplifiers use negative feedback.

Features of Negative Feedback (Properties of Negative Feedback)

(i) Decreased gain (ii) Increased bandwidth(iii) Linear operation(iv) Changes in input and output
resistances (v) Improvement noise immunity(vi) Reduction in output variation due to changes in
temperature and supply voltage. (vii) The amplifier system is stable

4.1 –Negative Feedback Topologies

A feedback amplifier or closed loop amplifier is represented by using two blocks; one for op-amp and another
for a feedback circuit. There are 4 ways to connect these two blocks results in the following negative feedback
configurations. In the figures shown below, the term voltage refers to
connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback
(i) Voltage series feedback
network; current refers to tapping off some output current
(ii) Voltage shunt feedback through the feedback network. Series refers to connecting the
feedback signal in series with the input signal voltage; shunt
(iii) Current series feedback refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel)
with an input current source.
(iv) Current shunt feedback

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The most commonly used topologies are voltage series feedback and voltage shunt feedback.

Note: Series feedback connections tend to increase the input resistance, whereas Shunt feedback
connections tend to decrease the input resistance. Voltage feedback tends to decrease the output
impedance, whereas current feedback tends to increase the output impedance. Typically, higher input
and lower output impedances are desired for most of the cascade amplifiers.

4.2 - Non-Inverting Amplifier (Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier):

Figure shows the circuit of Non-Inverting Amplifier using Voltage Series Feedback and its Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit with a part of the output voltage fed back in series with the input signal, resulting in an
overall gain reduction.

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4.2.1 - Expression for Closed loop Gain in terms of open loop gain A and feedback factor β:

The closed-loop gain of the amplifier Af is given by

V out
Af = ------- (1)
V in
In the absence of the feedback (Vf = 0), the output voltage Vo = A Vd = A(V1 – V2) ----- (2)
R1VO
From the circuit diagram, V1 = Vin and V2 = Vf = and
R 1 +R f
R 1 V out
Vf R +R R1
The feedback factor β = = 1 f =
Vout Vout R1 + R f
Using these values in equation (2) results
R1 VO A R1 VO
VO = A V1 − V2 = A Vin − = AVin −
R1 + R f R1 + R f
A R1 Vout A A
1+ V = AVin 𝑜𝑟 = Af = =
R1 + R f O Vin AR
1 + R +R1 1 + Aβ
1 f

Expression for Closed loop Gain in terms of Resistances:

Vout A A(R1 + R f ) A(R1 + R f )
Af = = A R
= ≅
Vin 1+ 1 R1 + R f + A R1 A R1
R 1 +R f

Vout Rf
since AR1 ≫ (R f + R1 ) ; Af = ≅ 1+ − − − For ideal Non − inv amplifier
Vin R1
1
Hence from the above equations, for a non – inverting amplifier, β = A
f

4.2.2 - Input Resistance with Feedback Rif :

Consider the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of non-inverting amplifier.

Input resistance with feedback Rif is given by

Vin Vin R i Vin A R i Vin A R i Vin Input resistance of the amplifier
R if = = V = V = = AV with feedback increases by a
Iin d o Vo in
Ri A 1+Aβ factor (1+ A)
R if = R i (1 + Aβ)

4.2.3 - Output Resistance with Feedback Rof:

With the input short circuited (Vin = 0),

Apply an external voltage VO such that

VO
R of = and IO = IA + IB
IO

Also [(Rf + R1) || Ri] >> RO, and hence IO  IA

Applying KVL to the output loop
VO – IORO – AVd = 0
VO − AVd VO − A(V1 − V2 )
IO = =
RO RO
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V O −A(0−V f ) V O +AV f V O +A βV O V O [1+Aβ] Output resistance of the

IO = = = = amplifier with feedback
RO RO RO RO
decreases by a factor (1+
VO RO A)
Output resistance with feedbackR of = =
IO 1 + Aβ
4.2.4 - Bandwidth with Feedback:

The range of frequencies over which the gain of the amplifier is constant is called bandwidth of an amplifier.
Figure shows the frequency response of 741 op-amp.
From the graph, it is seen that at 5 Hz, the gain is
2105 and at 1MHz, the gain is 1. Hence the gain
bandwidth (GBW) product is constant.

Break frequency is the frequency at which the

gain A is 3dB down from its value at 0 Hz
denoted by fO. For 741 op-amp it is 5 Hz.

Unity Gain Bandwidth (UGB) is the frequency at

This true for 741 op-amp which has one break frequency which the gain equals 1and is denoted by fF.
below unity gain bandwidth.

UGB = A fO = constant. ---------------- (a)

Also for a single break frequency op-amp like 741, UGB =Af fF = constant --------(b)
Where Af – closed loop gain; fF = Bandwidth with feedback
Equating equations (a) and (b) results in A fO = Af fF
A fO A fO
fF = = = fo (1 + Aβ)
AF A/(1 + Aβ)

Hence the bandwidth of an amplifier fF is equal to its bandwidth without feedback fo times (1 + A).

4.3 Inverting Amplifier (Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier)

Figure shows the circuit diagram of Inverting Amplifier using Voltage Shunt Feedback. The input signal drives
the input terminal along with the feedback signal(inverted) fed via feedback resistor R F. This arrangement
forms the negative feedback with the input signal increase results in a negative feedback signal at the input,
resulting in the decrease of output. The non-inverting terminal of the op-amp is grounded and resistor R1 is a
current limiting resistor.
4.3.1 - Gain with Feedback : Applying KCL at the inverting terminal

iin = iF + IB2 ------------(1)

Since the input resistance of the op-amp is very high, the current drawn by the op-amp (IB1 or IB2) << iF
hence iin = iF

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Vin − V2 V2 − VO
= − − − − − − − (2)
R1 RF
VO
Also the differential input voltage 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑉1 − V2 = where A is the op-amp gain without feedback
A
VO
Since non-inv terminal is grounded, V1 = 0, hence V2 = − A
VO VO
V in + − − VO
A A
Using this value in equation (2) =
R1 RF

VO VO
Vin − − VO [−VO − AVO ] VO R1 + R F + AR1
A A
= − = − = −VO
R1 RF R1 AR F AR1 AR F R1

R1 + R F + AR1 VO AR F
Vin = −VO or = AF = −
AR F R1 Vin R1 + R F + AR1

AR F AR F / R1 + R F AK
Consider the equation AF = − = − = − − − −(3)
R1 + R F + AR1 1 + AR1 / R1 + R F 1 + Aβ
RF
Where 𝐾 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
R 1 +R F

R1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 β = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
R1 + R F

Equation (3) gives the expression for closed loop gain AF in-terms of finite gain A, feedback factor β and
attenuation factor K. The minus sign indicates that the input and output signals are phase shifted by 180 o, hence
the name Inverting amplifier.

AR F
Consider the equation AF = −
R1 + R F + AR1

Since AR1>> (R1 + RF), then the equation (3) reduces to

VO RF
Gain with feedback AF = =− −−−−−− 4 (case of ideal op − amp)
V in R1
RF
From equation (4), by choosing proper resistance ratio of , any desired gain can be achieved.
R1

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4.3.2 - Analysis of Inverting Amplifier(Using the Concept of Virtual Ground)

Concept of Virtual Ground: In the inverting amplifier circuit, input is applied to the inverting terminal via
resistor R1 and the Non-inverting terminal is grounded. The differential input voltage vid is ideally zero, hence
the voltage at the inverting terminal (v2) is approximately equal to that at the voltage at Non-inverting
terminal(v1). In other words, the inverting terminal voltage is approximately at ground potential. Therefore in
an Inverting amplifier, the inverting terminal is said to be at virtual ground.

Analysis: Applying KCL at inverting terminal

iin = iF + IB2 ------------(A)

Since the input resistance of the op-amp is very high, the current drawn by
the op-amp (IB1 or IB2) << iF hence iin = iF

Vin − V2 V2 − VO
= − − − − − − − −(B)
R1 RF

Due to virtual ground, V2 = 0 since non-inv terminal is grounded, using this value in equation (B)

Vin − 0 0 − VO VO RF
= or Gain with feedback AF = = −
R1 RF Vin R1

4.3.3 - Input Resistance of Inv-Amplifier with Feedback

Figure shows the inverting amplifier where in the

feedback resistor RF is split into two Miller
components. The input resistance with feedback
is given by Rif and can be calculated as

RF
R if = R1 + ||R i = R1
1+A
Since A and Ri of the op-amp are very high.

4.3.4 - Output Resistance of Inv-Amplifier with Feedback:

The Output resistance with feedback RoF is the

resistance measured at the output terminal of the
feedback amplifier.

Vo
R oF =
Io

Applying KCL at node C; Io = Ia + Ib

Since Ri >> Rf, all the current Ib flows through the

series connection of Rf and R1.

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Also (Rf + R1 ) >> Ro, and (Ia >> Ib) it can be concluded that the current Ia  Io

Applying KVL to the output loop

VO – IORO – AVd = 0

VO − AVd VO − A(V1 − V2 ) VO − A(−Vf − 0) VO + AVf VO + A βVO VO [1 + Aβ]

IO = = = = = =
RO RO RO RO RO RO

VO RO
Output resistance with feedback R of = =
IO 1 + Aβ

Output resistance of the amplifier with feedback decreases by a factor (1+ A)

4.3.5 - Bandwidth with of Inverting Amplifier with feedback:

The gain bandwidth product of a single break frequency op-amp is always constant and the gain of the amplifier
decreases with feedback. Hence the bandwidth fF of the amplifier with feedback must be larger than that
without feedback.
Note: On comparing with the non – inverting amplifier, for
Bandwidth with feedback fF = fo(1 + A) the same closed loop gain, the closed loop bandwidth of the
inverting amplifier is lower by a factor of K.
Where fo is the break frequency of the op-amp and
fF = UGB ----- for the non-inv amp and
unity gain BW UGB UGB UGB
fo = = fF =
K
=
2
---for the inv amp since R1 = RF
open loop voltage gain A
However as the closed loop gain AF approaches the open-loop
UGB UGB UGB K gain A, the difference between the inv and non-inv amplifier
fF = 1 + Aβ = 1 + Aβ K = AK bandwidth approaches zero (this happens at K = 1)
A AK
1+Aβ

UGB [K] RF AK
fF = where K = and AF =
AF R1 + R F 1 + Aβ

Illustrative Examples

Problem1: The 741 op-amp having the following parameters is connected as a non-inverting amplifier withR1 = 1k
and RF = 10 k: A= 200000; Ri = 2M; Ro= 75; fo = 5 Hz; Supply voltages = + 15V, Output voltage swing = + 13V.
Calculate the values of AF, RiF, RoF and fF.. Also determine the total offset voltage without feedback.

R1 1 1 200000
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: β = = = and 1 + Aβ = 1 + = 18182.8
R1 + R F 1 + 10 11 11

A 200000
Closed loop gain AF = = = 10.99 R iF = R i 1 + Aβ = 2M 18182.8 = 36.4 G
1 + Aβ 18182.8

RO 75
R of = = = 4.12 mfF = fo 1 + Aβ = 5 18182.8 = 90.9 kHz
1 + Aβ 18182.8

±VSat ±13
Total offset voltage without feedback VooT = = = ±0.715 mV
1 + Aβ 18182.8
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Problem 2: The 741 op-amp having the following parameters is connected as an inverting amplifier with R1 = 470
and RF = 4.7 k: A= 200000; Ri = 2M; Ro= 75; fo = 5 Hz; Supply voltages = + 15V, Output voltage
swing = + 13V. Calculate the values of AF, RiF, RoF and fF.. Also determine the total offset voltage without feedback.

R1 470 1 RF 4700 1
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: β = = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 K= = =
R1 + R F 470 + 4700 11 R1 + R F 470 + 4700 1.1

200000
1 + Aβ = 1 + = 18182.8
11

200000
AK 1.1 RF 4700
AF = − = = −10. and Rif = R1 + ||Ri = 470 + ||2M = 470
1 + Aβ 18182.8 1+A 1 + 200000

RO 75 UGB fo 1 + Aβ 5 18182.8
R of = = = 4.12 mfF = = = 1 = 100kHz
1 + Aβ 18182.8 K K (1.1)

±VSat ±13
Total offset voltage without feedback VooT = = = ±0.715 mV
1 + Aβ 18182.8

4.4 - Comparison between Inverting and Non inverting Amplifiers

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4.5 - Op-amp as DC Amplifier: In DC amplifier, the output signal changes in response to changes in its dc
input levels. To reduce the effect of offset and to improve the accuracy of the DC amplifier, offset null circuitry
must be added to the circuit. Figure below shows the inverting and non-inv amplifiers using 741 op-amp with
offset nulling. A resistor ROM = R1||RF is connected to the non-inverting terminal to compensate for the offset
due input bias currents.

Offset Nulling

In the input stage of the op-amp is differential amplifier; due to the mismatch between the transistors and their
parameters, an offset voltage is present at the output when both the inputs are zero. To minimise the effect of
offset voltages and currents, a 10k potentiometer is connected between the terminals 1 and 5 with its moving
contact connected to –VEE. By adjusting the potentiometer, the offset voltage and currents can be nulled. (This
is Manufacturer’s recommended method of offset nulling for the 741 op-amp)

4.6 - Op-amp As AC Amplifier: Op-amp can be used as an AC amplifier and under these conditions, the low
frequency and high frequency limits of the op-amp are significant. The coupling capacitors used at the input (to
remove the unwanted dc ) will have effect on the frequency response of the amplifier. Figure shows AC
inverting amplifier using 741 op-amp.

Analysis of AC inverting Amplifier :

For Inverting amplifier, RiF = R1 and Rin is the source

resistance and RO is output resistance of the first stage.
Rin = RO and Ci input coupling capacitor

Consider the input circuit of the ac inverting amplifier.

R iF vin j ωR iF Ci vin
vA = 1 =
RO + + R iF j R iF + R O ωCi + 1
jωC i

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j[2πfR iF C i ]v in j[2πfR iF C i ]v in
vA = = f
j 2πf R iF +R O C i +1 j f +1
L

1
where fL = Hz and f = input frequency in Hz
2π R iF + R O Ci
The output voltage is given by

RF RF j 2πfR iF Ci vin
VO = − VA = − f
− − − − − (a)
R1 R1 j +1
fL

As the input frequency increases, the gain also increases. At f = fL, the contribution
from the denominator of equation (a) to the overall gain is – 3 dB. Hence fL is referred as break frequency or
low frequency cut-off. For frequencies f >fL, the frequency response is flat. The high frequency cut-off depends
upon the closed loop gain of the amplifier. The bandwidth of the amplifier BW = fH – fL

4.7 - Analysis AC Non-inverting amplifier:-

Figure shows the AC non-inv amplifier using op-amp.
The input is fed to the non-inv terminal via coupling capacitance Ci.
Resistor RF provides the feedback path between input and output.
Consider the input circuit of the ac non inverting amplifier.
R iF vin j ωR iF Ci vin
vB = 1 =
RO + + R iF j R iF + R O ωCi + 1
jωC i

j[2πfR iF Ci ]vin j[2πfR iF Ci ]vin

vB = = f
j 2πf R iF + R O Ci + 1 j +1 fL

1
where fL = Hz and
2π R iF + R O Ci

f = input frequency in Hz
Due to virtual ground existing between the input
terminals of the op-amp, VA = VB
The output voltage is given by

RF RF j 2πfR iF Ci vin
VO = 1 + VA = 1 + f
− − − − − (b)
R1 R1 j +1
fL

As the input frequency increases, the gain also increases. At f = fL, the contribution from
the denominator of equation (a) to the overall gain is – 3 dB. Hence fL is referred as break frequency or low
frequency cut-off.
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For frequencies f > fL, the frequency response is flat. The high frequency cut-off depends upon the closed loop
gain of the amplifier. The bandwidth of the amplifier BW = fH – fL

Problem3 : For an AC inverting amplifier, Rin = 50, Ci = 0.1F, R1 = 100, RF = 1 k, RL=10 k and
the supply voltages are + 15V. Determine the bandwidth of the amplifier.

Solution: For inverting amplifier, RiF = R1 = 100 ;

Given source resistance RO = Rin = 50 ; RF = 1 k, and Ci = 0.1F

For 741 op-amp UGB = 106 Hz

RF 1000 RF 1000
K= = 100+1000 = 0.909 and AF = = = 10
R 1 +R F R1 100

1 1
fL = =
2π R iF + R O C1 2π R1 + R in C1

1 [UGB]K 106 (0.909)

fL = = 10.6 kHz and fH = = = 90.9 kHz
2π 100 + 50 (0.1 × 10−6 ) AF 10

BW = fH – fL = 90.9 – 10.6 = 80.3 kHz

4.8 Applications of op-amp :Summing, Scaling and Averaging Amplifiers

4.8.1 -Inverting Configuration with Two inputs
Fig shows an inverting summer circuit which amplifies the
sum of two inputs. The circuit is essentially an inverting
amplifier with two inputs.

Applying KCL to node A,  I1 + I2 − Io = 0

V1 − VA V2 − VA VA − Vo
+ − =0
R1 R2 R3
Due to virtual ground between the inverting and non-inverting
terminals of the op-amp, VA= VB; Since VB = 0, the potential
of VA = 0.

The equation simplifies to

V1 − 0 V2 − 0 0 − Vo Vo V1 V2
+ − = 0 or =− +
R1 R2 R3 R3 R1 R 2

V1 V2 R3 R3
VO = −R 3 + =− V1 + V − − − −Scaler or weighted Amplifier
R1 R 2 R1 R2 2
R
If R1 = R2 = R1 then VO = − R 3 (V1 + V2 ) = −Av (V1 + V2 ) -------- Summing Amplifier
1

If R1 = R2 = R3 then AF = 1 then VO = −(V1 + V2 ) ----------- Negative Summer or Adder

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1 (V 1 +V 2 )
If R1 = R2 = 2R3 then AF1 = AF2 = then VO = − ------ Averaging Circuit
2 2

4.8.2 - Inverting configuration with Three inputs

Figure shows a three input inverting summer.

Applying KCL to node A, results I1 + I2 + I3 + Io = 0

VA − V1 VA − V2 VA − V3 VA − Vo
+ + + =0
R1 R2 R3 R4

Due to virtual ground between the input terminals of the op-amp,

VA= VB; and since VB = 0, the potential of VA = 0.

The equation simplifies to

0 − V1 0 − V2 0 − V3 0 − Vo Vo V1 V2 V3
+ + + = 0 or = − + +
R1 R2 R3 R4 R4 R1 R 2 R 3

V1 V2 V3 R4 R4 R4
VO = −R 4 + + =− V1 + V2 + V − − − −𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
R1 R 2 R 3 R1 R2 R3 3

R
If R1 = R2 = R3 then VO = − R 3 (V1 + V2 + V3 ) = −Av (V1 + V2 + V3 ) -------- Summing Amplifier
1

If R1 = R2 = R3= R4 then AF = 1 then VO = −(V1 + V2 + V3 ) ----------- Negative Summer or Adder

1 V 1 +V 2 +V 3
If R1 = R2 = R3 = 3 R4 then AF1 = AF2 = AF3 = 3 then VO = − ------ Averaging Circuit
3

4.8.3 - Two input Non-inverting Summer

Fig shows a non-inverting summer circuit using op-amp.

The voltage across R4 is fed as Vi (negative feedback)

R4
Vi = V
R3 + R4 O
R4
Due to virtual ground, Vi = VA = VO − − − (1)
R 3 +R 4

V 1 −V A V 2 −V A
Applying KCL to node A  + =0
R1 R2

If R1 = R2 = R, then

V1 − VA V2 − VA −2VA + (V1 + V2 ) (V1 + V2 )

+ = =0 or VA = − − − −(2)
R R R 2
Equating the equations (1) and (2) 
R4 V1 + V2
VO =
R3 + R4 2
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R4 V1 + V2 V1 + V2
VO = 1 + = AF − − − 𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
R3 2 2

With R4 = R3 results VO = V1 + V2 ------- Non-inverting Summer

Hence the Output is the direct sum of the two inputs V1 and V2

4.8.4 - Three input Non-Inverting Summer

Figure shows a three input non inverting summer circuit using op-amp. The voltage across R5 is fed as Vi
R5
(negative feedback) Vi = R +R VO
4 5

R5
Due to virtual ground, Vi = VA = R 4 +R 5
VO

V A −V 1 V A −V 2 V A −V 3
Applying KCL to node A  R1
+ R2
+ R2
=0

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R, then

VA − V1 VA − V2 VA − V3 3VA − (V1 + V2 + V3 )
+ + =
R R R R
V1 + V2 + V3
or VA =
3
R5 V1 + V2 + V3
VA = VO =
R4 + R5 3
R4 V1 + V2 + V3 V1 + V2 + V3
VO = 1 + = AF − 𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
R5 3 3
With R4 = 2R5 results VO = V1 + V2 + V3 ------- Non-inverting Summer
Hence the Output is the direct sum of the three inputs V1 V2 and V3
V 1 +V 2 +V 3
Choose R4<< R5 so that AF = 1, then VO= ------ Averaging Circuit

4.8.5 - Differential Configuration – (a) Subtractor or Difference Amplifier:

A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between the input signals. An op-amp can be used as a
subtractor, since the open loop gain of op-amp is very high; op-amp has
to be used with negative feedback.

Figure shows the difference amplifier using op-amp.

R4
The potential at node B is given as VR 4 = VB = V2
R 3 +R 4

Due to virtual ground at the terminals of the op-amp; VA = VB

Applying KCL to node A results in

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R4 R4
VA − V1 VA − Vo V2 − V1 V2 − VO
R 3 +R 4 R 3 +R 4
+ =0 OR + =0
R1 R2 R1 R2

Using R1 = R2 = R3 = R4= R

1 1
V 2 −V 1 V 2 −V O
2 2
+ = 0 VO = V2 – V1
R R

Hence the Output is the direct difference of the two inputs V1 and V2

4.8.6 - Differential Summing Amplifier

Figure shows a summing amplifier with four inputs using differential configuration. Two of the inputs are
connected to inverting terminal and the other two to the non-inv terminal. The analysis of the circuit is done by
considering inverting inputs and non inverting inputs individually. It is assumed that all resistors are equal and
equal to R

Considering only the inverting inputs,

The equivalent circuit is basically a 2 input inverting summer and its output is given by
Rf R R R
VO1 = − V + R f V2 or VO1 = V + R V2 = −[V1 + V2 ]
R1 1 2 R 1

Considering only the non-inv inputs

The equivalent circuit is basically a 2 input non- inverting summer.

R VO2
VA = VO2 =
R+R 2
Applying KCL at node B
VB − V3 VB − V4 2VB − (V3 + V4 )
+ = 0 or =0
R R R
V 3 +V $
VB = Due to virtual ground between input terminals of the op-amp, VA = VB
2

VO2 V3 + V4
= or VO2 = V3 + V4
2 2
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The total output of the summer VO = VO1 + VO2 = – V1 – V2 + V3 + V4

Problem4 : For three input inverting summer with Va =100mV, Vb =200mV, Vc =300mV and Ra =3
kRb =2.2 k, Rc =1 k, RF =4.7 k and RoM =470  . Determine the output voltage.
RF R R 4.7 4.7 4.7
Solution: VO = − Va + R F Vb + RF Vc = − 100mV + 200mV + (300mV) = −2 V
Ra b c 3 2.2 1

4.9 - Instrumentation Amplifier

4.9.1 Need of Instrumentation amplifier:

Many industrial systems, consumer systems and process control systems require precise measurement of
physical quantities like temperature, pressure, humidity etc and these are generally carried out with the help of
transducers / sensors. Transducer’s outputs are generally very low level signals and these low level signals are
not able to drive the next stage of the system. Hence amplifiers are needed drive the next stage. Transistor
amplifiers are not suitable as they are unable to reject noise. The transistor amplifier will cause loading effect.
Also in some systems, transducers are located remotely from the control locations and long cable wires /
connecting wires used lead to signal loss.

A special amplifier which reject noise and provides high gain called Instrumentation amplifier is used under
these conditions. An Instrumentation Amplifier is a special purpose amplifier used for amplifying low level
signals, having very high input impedance, high CMRR and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
Examples – ICL 7605, LH0036 etc.

4.9.2 - Instrumentation Amplifier Using Transducer Bridge

Figure shows the circuit diagram of an Instrumentation amplifier using a transducer bridge. A resistive
transducer whose resistance R changes as a function of some physical energy +R is connected in one arm of
the bridge.

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For the balanced bridge under some reference condition Vb = Va

R B Vdc R A Vdc RB + RC RA + RT RC RT
= => = or =
RB + RC RA + RT R B Vdc R A Vdc RB RA

Generally resistors are selected as RA= RB =RC =RT at some reference condition. Reference condition is the
specific value of the physical quantity under measurement at which the bridge is balanced. As the physical
quantity to be measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes, which causes the bridge
unbalanced. Hence VaVb

Let the change in resistance be R and since RB and RC are fixed resistors, Vb is constant, however Va varies as
a function of transducer resistance.

R A Vdc R B Vdc
VA = and VB =
R A + (R T + ∆R) RB + RC

The voltage Vab across the output terminals of the bridge isVab = Va – Vb

R A Vdc R B Vdc RVdc RVdc RVdc Vdc Vdc [∆R]

Vab = − = − = − =−
R A + (R T + ∆R) RB + RC R + (R + ∆R) R+R 2R + ∆R 2 2(2R + ∆R)

Negative sign indicates that Va< Vb. This voltage Vab is applied as input to the instrumentation amplifier
comprising voltage followers (to avoid loading and a differential amplifier for output. The gain of the
RF
differential amplifier is − . Hence the output of the circuit is
R1

RF Vdc ∆R RF Vdc ∆R
VO = − − =
R1 2(2R + ∆R) R1 2(2R + ∆R)

R F ∆R
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆R ≪ 2R; VO ≅ V − − − − − (𝐴)
R1 4R dc

Hence the output voltage is directly proportional to change in resistance ∆R and the output meter is calibrated to
measure this change as equivalent to the change in physical quantity under measurement.

The most commonly used resistive transducers are Thermistors, Photo-conductive cells and Strain gauges.

Problem5 : For an Instrumentation amplifier, if R1 = 1 k, RF = 4.7k, RA=RB=RC=100 k, Vdc = 5V

and the op-amp supply voltages are + 15V. The transducer is a Thermistor with the following
specifications: RT = 100 k at reference temperature of 25 oC, temperature co-efficient of resistance
α= –1k / oC, Determine the output voltage at 0o C and 100o C.

Solution: From the given data, the reference condition occurs at T1 = 25oC and at this temperature,
RA=RB=RC= RT = R=100 k, hence the output of the transducer bridge Vab = 0

Given temperature co-efficient of resistance  = – 1 ko / C

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Change in resistance of the thermistor at 0o C

R1 = T = – 1 k [T2 – T1] = – 1 k [0 – 25] = 25 k

R F ∆R 4.7k 25k
Output voltage VO1 ≅ Vdc = 5 = 1.47 V
R1 4R 1k 4100k

Change in resistance of the thermistor at 100o C

R1 = T = – 1 k [T3 – T1] = – 1 k [100 – 25] = – 75 k

R F ∆R 4.7k −75k
Output voltage VO1 ≅ Vdc = 5 = −4.41 V
R1 4R 1k 4100k

Choose a center zero meter calibrated to read 25o C as zero volts, which in-turn read 0o C as 1.47 V and 100oC
as – 4.41 V

Problem6 : For an Instrumentation amplifier, if R1 = 1.8 k, RF = 4.7k, RA=RB=RC=100 k, Vdc = 10V
and the op-amp supply voltages are + 15V. The transducer is a Thermistor with the following
specifications: RT = 500 k at 25 oC, the temperature co-efficient of resistance = –1k / oC. If the
temperature changes from 0o C to 70o C, find the variation in (a) output of the transducer bridge Vab(b)
the output signal VO

Solution: From the given data, the reference condition occurs at T1 = 25oC and at this temperature,
RA=RB=RC= RT = R= 500 k, hence the output of the transducer bridge Vab = 0

Given temperature co-efficient of resistance  = – 1 ko / C

Change in resistance of the thermistor at 0o C

R1 = T = – 1 k [T2 – T1] = – 1 k [0 – 25] = 25 k

Vdc [∆R1 ] 10[25k]

Vab 1 = − =− = − 0.122 V
2(2R + ∆R1 ) 2[2 500k + 25k]

R F ∆R1 4.7k 25k

Output voltage VO1 ≅ Vdc ≅ 10 = 0.326 V
R1 4R 1.8k 4(500k)

Change in resistance of the thermistor at 70o C

R2 = T = – 1 k [T3 – T1] = – 1 k [70 – 25] = – 45 k

Vdc [∆R 2 ] 10[−45k]

Vab 2 = − =− = 0.2356 V
2(2R + ∆R 2 ) 2[2 500k − 45k]

R F ∆R 2 4.7k −45k
Output voltage VO2 ≅ Vdc ≅ 10 = −0.587 V
R1 4R 1.8k 4(500k)

Vab changes from –0.122 volts to 0.2356 volts and correspondingly output changes from 0.326V to –0.587V

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4.10 - Basic Comparator

A Comparator compares the input signal voltage applied to one input terminal of op-amp with a known voltage
called as reference voltage applied to the other input terminal. In its simplest form, it is an open loop amplifier
with two analog inputs and a digital output which can be either +Vsat depending on which input is larger. A
Comparator finds its importance in circuits where two voltage signals are to be compared and to be
distinguished on which is stronger. A comparator is also an important circuit in the design of non-sinusoidal
waveform generators as relaxation oscillators.

4.10.1 - Non Inverting Comparator:

Figure below shows a non – inverting comparator where in the input Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal
and a fixed reference voltage Vref is applied to the inverting terminal and corresponding waveforms for
sinusoidal input.

For Vin<Vref, the output voltage VO= –Vsat and for Vin>Vref, the output voltage VO = +Vsat

Hence the output changes from one saturation level to another level whenever VinVref Hence sometimes
comparators are referred to as voltage level detectors. The diodes D1 and D2 protect the op-amp from excessive
input voltage. Due to these diodes, the difference input voltage applied to the op-amp is limited between + 0.7V
Hence these diodes are called clamp diodes. The series resistances R1 and R limit the current through the diodes
and normally R1 = R to reduce the offset problems.

4.10.2 - Inverting Comparator

In inverting comparator the input Vin is applied to the inverting terminal and a fixed reference voltage V ref is
applied to the non- inverting terminal. Figure shows the inverting comparator and corresponding waveforms for
sinusoidal input. The reference voltage can be obtained by using a 10 k potentiometer and dc supply voltages
+VCC and – VEE. Clamping diodes D1 and D2 are used to protect the op-amp from excessive input Vin.

For Vin<Vref, the output voltage VO= +Vsat and for Vin>Vref, the output voltage VO = –Vsat
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4.10.3 - Zero Cross Detector (ZCD)

A zero cross detector is one of the application of the comparator and is basically a sine wave to square wave
converter. A ZCD is a comparator with reference voltage Vref = 0

4.11.1 - Inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit

The basic comparators are used in open loop mode and since the open loop gain of op-amp is very high, very
small noise voltages can also cause false triggering at the output. The comparator circuit designed with a
positive feedback to avoid such an unwanted false triggering is called Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative
Comparator.

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The input is applied to the inverting terminal of the Schmitt trigger and the feedback signal is given to the non-
inverting terminal. This ensures positive feedback. The reference voltages are obtained using voltage divider
network R1 – R2. The reference voltage at the non-inverting input terminal is given by
R2
Vref = I2 R 2 = V
R1 + R 2 o
When the output voltage is at +VSat, then the reference voltage is called as Upper Threshold Potential UTP

R2
VUTP = V
R1 + R 2 sat
When Vin>Vref or VUTP, then the voltage at inverting terminal becomes greater than non inv terminal and the
output switches to –VSatlevel and now the new reference voltage is called Lower Triggering Potential LTP and
is given by
R2
VLTP = −Vsat
R1 + R 2
By ensuring the threshold voltages are larger than noise voltages, false output triggering can be eliminated.
The input voltage value at which the output changes from +Vsat to –VSat is called Upper Threshold Potential
(UTP) and the value of the input at which the out changes from –VSat to +VSat is Lower Threshold Point (LTP).
Between UTP and LTP output will be in the given state until input exceeds the threshold levels either positive
or negative.

4.11.2 - Input /Output Characteristics or Transfer Characteristics

When Vin<VUTP; the output will be at +VSat.

When VinVUTP, output switches from +VSat to –VSat.

When Vin<VLTP; Vo= –VSat and

when VinVLTP, the output switches from –VSat to + VSat.

The voltage difference between VUTP and VLTP is referred to as
Hysteresis. VH = VUTP –VLTP
Note: The output of the Schmitt trigger is always a rectangular wave for any type of input. Hence it is also
called rectangular wave generator.

4.11.3 - Characteristics of Comparators

The important characteristics of compartaors are (i) speed of operation (switching speed basically depens on
slew rate of the op-amp) (ii) Accuracy – accuracy depends voltage gain, CMRR, input offsets and thermal drifts
(iii) Compatibility output – the output should be compatible to digital logic

Problem 6 : Determine the threshold voltages for an inverting Schimitt trigger Vin = 1V (pp) sinewave
with supply voltages +15V. Use 741 op-amp with R1 = 56 k and feedback resistior R2 = 100 .
Solution: 741 op-amp, +Vsat = +14V
R2 100
VLTP = −Vsat = −14 = −24.95 mV
R1 + R 2 56k + 100

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R2 100
VUTP = Vsat = 14 = 24.95 mV
R1 + R 2 56k + 100
4.11.4 - Adjusting the triggering points:

(1)Schmitt trigger with LTP = 0V

+V R
For Vi > 0; D1 gets forward biased and Vref = VR2 = UTP = I2 R2 = ( R Sat 2
+R ) 1 2

For Vin< 0; D1 gets reverse biased and V0= 0, hence Vref = LTP=0V
By reversing the diode, the circuit works a Schmitt trigger with UTP=0V

(2) Inverting Schmitt trigger with different UTP and LTP

When V0 = +VSat; D1 ON and D2 OFF
R
VUTP = ( R +2R ) |Vsat | − Vf
1 2

When V0 = –VSat; D2 ON and D1 OFF

R2
VLTP = ( R −Vsat − Vf
2+ R3)

Vf is the voltage drop across D1 and [Link] values of and

R3 gives different UTP and LTP voltages.

Problem7 : Using 741 op-amp, design a inverting Schmitt trigger circuit to trigger at +0.5V and to
produce an output of approximately +11 V.
Solution:
Given +VSat = + 11 V; hence supply voltages are + 12V.

Given UTP = 0.5V, let R2 = 1k

R2 1
VUTP = V or 0.5 = 11 or R1 = 21 k
R1 + R 2 sat R1 + 1
Problem8 : Using bipolar op-amp with a +18V supply, design an inv Schmitt trigger circuit to have
UTP=1.5V and LTP = –3V
Solution:
Given supply voltages = + 18V ; hence +Vsat =+ 17V.

Given UTP = 1.5V, let R2 = 1kVf = 0.7 V (silicon diode)

R2 1k
VUTP = V − Vf or 1.5 = 17 − 0.7 or R1 = 9.867 k
( R1 + R 2 ) sat ( R1 + 1k)

R2 1k
VLTP = −Vsat + Vf or − 3 = −17 + 0.7 or R 3 = 4.33 k
( R3 + R2 ) ( R 3 + 1k)

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Problem 9: A system uses an On-Off temperature controller to maintain the temperature between 25 oC
to [Link] temperature sensing transducer system generates a voltage of 0.5V at 25oC and 1.5V at 30oC.
The heater is operated through a relay of 12V, 100mA. Design a suitable system using op-amp with +15V
supply and draw the complete circuit.

Solution:

Given UTP = 1.5V, let R2 = 1k Vf = 0.7 V (silicon diode)

Supply voltages are + 15 V, hence +Vsat = +14V

R2 1k
VUTP = V − Vf or 1.5 = 14 − 0.7
( R1 + R 2 ) sat ( R1 + 1k)

R1 = 7.867 k

R2 1k
VLTP = | − Vsat | − Vf or 0.5 = 14 − 0.7
( R3 + R2 ) ( R 3 + 1k)

R 3 = 25.6 k

Since the output current requirement is 100mA and op-amp can supply up to 25mA only, use op-amp to drive a
transistor with a minimum min =50 so that IB = IC /  = 100 mA / 50 = 2 mA << 25 mA

Vsat − VBE 14 − 0.7

RB = = = 6.8 k
IB 2mA

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Review Questions

1. Mention the reasons why an open loop op-amp is unsuitable for linear applications.
2. What is feedback? List two types of feedback. Which type of feedback is used in linear applications?
3. Draw the four negative feedback configurations and which two configurations are most commonly
used?
4. With a neat circuit diagram, derive the expression for closed loop gain, input resistance, output
resistance and bandwidth of a Non Inverting amplifier using voltage series feedback
5. With a neat circuit diagram, derive the expression for closed loop gain, input resistance, output
resistance and bandwidth of an Inverting amplifier using voltage shunt feedback.
6. With a neat circuit diagram, obtain the expression for the gain of an AC inverting amplifier.
7. Show how an op-amp can be used to obtain the average of three inputs in inverting configuration.
8. Explain with necessary equations and circuit diagram, how an op-amp can be used to generate the sum
of three inputs in non-inverting configuration.
9. Explain the working of difference amplifier.
10. What is an Instrumentation amplifier? With a neat circuit diagram and necessary equations, explain the
working of an Instrumentation amplifier.
11. Why feedback is used in Schmitt trigger circuit? Explain the working of inverting Schmitt Trigger, draw
the appropriate wave forms and transfer curve.

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