EXPERIMENT NO.

: 1

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of an insulating powder.

INTRODUCTION

Conduction of heat is flow of heat which occurs due to exchange of energy from one
molecule to another without appreciable motion of molecules. In any heating process, heat
is flowing outwards from heat generation point. In order to reduce losses heat, various
types of insulations are used in practice. Various powders e.g. asbestos powder, plaster of
paris etc, are also used for heat insulation. In order to determine the appropriate thickness
of insulation, knowledge of thermal conductivity material is essential. The unit enables to
determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powders, using ‘sphere in sphere’ method.

APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of a smaller (inner) sphere, inside which is fitted a mica electric
heater. Smaller sphere is fitted at the center of outer sphere. The insulating powder, whose
thermal conductivity is to be determined, is fitted in the gap between the two spheres. The
heat generated by the heater flows through the powder to the outer sphere. The outer sphere
loses heat to atmosphere. The input to the heater is controlled by a dimmerstat and is
measured on voltmeter and ammeter. Four thermocouples are provided on the outer surface
of inner sphere and six thermocouples are on the inner surface of outer sphere, which are
connected to multichannel digital temperature indicator. Average of outer & inner sphere
temperatures give the temperature difference across the layer of powder.

SPECIFICATION:

1. INNER SPHERE – 100 mm O.D., halved construction.

2. OUTER SPHERE – 200 mm I.D., halved construction.
3. HEATER – Mica flat heater, fitted inside inner sphere.
4. CONTROLS – 1) Main Switch – 30 A , DPDT Switch
2) Dimmerstat – 0-230 volts, 2A capacity

MEASUREMENTS-
1) Voltmeter – 0-200 volts
2) Ammeter- 0-1 Amp.
3) Multichannel digital temperature indicator, calibrated for cr/Al thermocouples.

PROCEDURE:
1. Keep dimmerstat knob at ZERO position and switch ON the equipment.
2. Slowly rotate the dimmerstat knob, so that voltage is applied across the heater. Let the
temperature rise.
3. Wait until steady state is reached.

1
 4. Note down the temperatures and input of heater in terms of volts and current.
5. Repeat the procedure for different heat input.
6. Do not exceed 40 watt.
7. Insulating material plaster powder.

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. No. TEMPERATURES OC HEATER INPUT

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Volts Amps

THEORY

Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of a hollow sphere formed
of insulating powder (Ref. fig.)

Let, ri = radius of inner sphere, m

ro = radius of outer sphere, m
Ti = avg. inner sphere temperature ◦c
To = avg. outer sphere temperature ◦c

Consider a thin spherical layer of thickness dr at radius r & temperature difference of dT

across the layer. Applying Fourier Law of heat conduction, heat transfer rate,

q = - k . 4π . r2. [dT/dr]

Where, k = thermal conductivity of insulating powder

q dr
…………… × …………… = - dT
4.π.k r2
Integrating between, ri to ro & Ti to To, we get

or Q/4 × [1/ri - 1/ro] = (Ti –To)

4.π.[Link] .ro. (Ti- To)

or q= ……………………………………
(ro – ri)

2
From the measured value of q, Ti and To thermal conductivity of insulating powder can
be determined as,
q (ro - ri)
k = ………………
4.π.[Link].(Ti – To)
CALCULATION:

3
 ➢
Heater input ; q = V × I watts
➢
Avg. inner sphere surface temperature
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
Ti = ……………………………… °C
4
➢
Avg. outer sphere surface temperature To = …………………………… °C 6
➢
Inner sphere radius = 50 mm = 0.05 m
➢
Outer sphere radius = 100 mm = 0.01 m
q. (ro – ri)
Now, k= ……………………… W/m K
4.π.[Link]. (Ti –To)

Ti + To
at ……………… °C
2
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Operate all the switches and control gently.
2. If thermal conductivity of the powder other than supplied is to be determined,
then gently dismantle the outer sphere and remove the powder, taking care that
heater connections and thermocouples are not disturbed.
3. Earthing is essential for the unit.

Schematic Diagram:

4
 EXPERIMENT N0-2
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of a solid by the guarded hot plate method.

INTRODUCTION:

The apparatus is designed and fabricated according to the Guarded Hot Plate Principle. The
guarded hot plate method has been recognized by scientists and engineers in U.S.A., West
Germany, Scandinavian Countries, USSR and India as most dependable and reproducible for
the measurement of thermal conductivity of insulating materials. It is a steady state absolute
method suitable for materials which can be laid flat between two parallel plates and can be
adopted for loose fill materials which can be filled between such plates.

PRINCIPLES OF THE GUARDED HOT PLATE METHOD:

The essential parts- the hot plate, the cold plates, the heater assembly, thermocouples and the
specimens in position are shown in the same figure.

For the measurement of thermal conductivity (k) what is required is to have a one
dimensional heat flow through the flat specimen, an arrangement for maintaining its faces at
constant temperature and some metering method to measure the heat flow through a known
area. To eliminate the distortion caused by edge losses in unidirectional heat flow, the central
plate is surrounded by a guard which is separately heated. Temperatures are measured by
calibrated thermocouples either attached to the specimens at the hot and cold faces. Two
specimens are used to ensure that all the heat comes not through the specimen only. Knowing
the heat input to the central plate heater, the temperature difference across the specimen, its
thickness and the metering area, one can calculate K of the specimen by the following
formula:

q L
K = ……… × …………… W/m °C…………… (1)
2A Th – Tc

Where, K = Thermal conductivity of sample, W/m °C

q = Heat flow rate in the specimen, Watts
A = Metering area of the specimen,
Th = Hot plate temperature, °C
Tc = Cold plate temperature, °C

L = Thickness of specimen, m

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If the specimen thickness are different and the respective hot and cold temperatures are
different then

q
K= ………… × (a + b) W/ m °C
A
1
Where, a = …………………
(Th1 – Tc1 )/L1
1
b = …………………
(Th2 – Tc2 )/L2
Where suffix 1 is for upper specimen and 2 is for lower specimen.
APPARATUS:

The apparatus is designed and fabricated with IS 3336 as a guide line, having the following
specifications:

Diameter of the heating plate = 100 mm

Width of the heating plate = 037 mm
Inside diameter of the heating ring = 110 mm
Outside diameter of the heating ring = 180 mm
Max. thickness of the specimen = 025 mm
Min. thickness of the specimen = 006 mm
Diameter of the specimen = 180 mm
Mean temp. range = 40 ◦c – 100 °C
Max. temp. of hot plate = 170 °C
Diameter of cooling plate = 180
Central Heater - Nichrome strip type wire sandwiched between mica sheets.
Guarded Heater Rig - Nichrome strip type wire sandwiched between mica sheets.
Dimmerstat - ( 0-2 Amp, 0-240 Volts.) - 2 Nos.
Voltmeter - 0-200 V.
Ammeter - 0-2 Amp.
Thermocouple - (Chromel Alumel)- 6 Nos.
Glass wool insulation around the assembly.
Temperature Indicator - 0-200 ◦c
Specimen supplied - Hylam (Backelite) 9.5 mm thick.

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DISCRIPTION:

The heater plate is surrounded by a heating ring for stabilizing the temperature of the primary
heater and prevent heat loss radially around its edges. The primary and guard heater are made
up of mica sheets ih which is wound closely spaced Nichrome wire and packed with upper
and lower mica sheets. These heaters together form a flat which together with upper and lower
copper plates and rings form the heater plate assembly.

Two thermocouples are used to measure the hot face temperature at the upper and lower
central heater assembly copper plates. Two more thermocouples are used to check balance in
both the heater.

Specimens are held between the heater and cooling unit on each side of the apparatus.
Thermocouple No. 5 and 6 measure the temperature of the upper cooling plate and lower
cooling plate respectively.

The cooling chamber is a composite assembly of Aluminium casting and Aluminium cover
with entry and exit adapter for water inlet and outlet.

TEST PROCEDURE:

The specimens are placed on either side of the plate assembly, uniformly touching the cooling
plate. The outer container containing glass wool insulation is fixed over the test assembly
carefully. The cooling circuit is started. Then input is given to central and guard heaters
through separate single phase supply lines with a dimmerstat for each line and it is

7
adjusted to maintain the desired temperatures. The guard heater input is adjusted in such a
way that there is no radial heat flow which is checked from thermocouple readings and is
adjusted accordingly. The input to the central heater (current and voltage) the thermocouple
readings are recorded every 10 minutes till a reasonably steady state condition is reached. The
readings are recorded in the observation table. The final steady state values are taken for
calculation.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Keep dimerstat to ZERO voltage position before start.

2. Increase the voltage gradually.
3. Start the cooling circuit before switching ON the heaters and adjust the flow rate so
that practically there is no temperature rise in the circulation.
4. Keep the heater plate undisturbed and adjust the cooling plate after keeping the
samples with the help of nuts gently.
5. While fixing the insulation cover, be careful that heater and thermocouple connections
as well as water connections are not disturbed.

OPERATIONAL INSTRUCTIONS:

For insuring that no radial heat transfer is there, generally outer heater input is about 2 to 3
times than central heating input.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr Main Heater Ring Heater Cooling

No. Plate
V I T1 T2 V I T3 T4 T5 T6

CALCULATIONS :
➢
Main Heater Input = V1 × I1 = W1
(Inner Heater)
➢
Ring Heater Input = V2 × I2 = W2
(Outer Heater)
➢
Specimen Used =
➢
Specimen thickness ‘L’ =
➢
Diameter of specimen = 0.180 m
➢
Metering area π
2
A = ……… = 0.00866 m
4
Where, D = Dia. of the heating plate = 0.1 m

8
9
 X = Width of gap between the plates = 0.005 m

W1 × L
K = …………………… W/ m°C
2A . (Th – Tc)
Referred at,
Th + Tc
= …………
2
Where,

T1 + T 2
Th = …………… °C
2

T5 + T 6
Tc = …………… °C
2

10
 EXPERIMENT NO. : 3

Aim :- To determine thermal conductivity of metal rod.

INTRODUCTION:

Thermal conductivity is the physical property of the material denoting the ease with which a
particular substance can accomplish the transmission of thermal energy by molecular motion.

Thermal conductivity of a material is found to depend on the chemical composition of the

substance or substances of which it is a composed, the phase (i.e. gas, liquid or solid) in which
it exists, its crystalline structure if a solid, the temperature and pressure to which it is subjected,
and whether or not it is a homogeneous material.

Table 1 – Lists the values of thermal conductivity of some common metal:

SOLID’S (Metal) Thermal Conductivity State

W/m ◦C
Pure Copper 380 20 degree

Brass 110 - - do - -

Steel (0.5%C) 54 - - do - -

S. S. 17 - - do --

Mechanism of Thermal Energy Conduction in Metals:

Thermal energy may be conducted in solids by two modes:
1. Lattice Vibration.
2. Transport by free electrons.
Thermal energy can be conducted in solids by free electrons and by lattice vibrations. Large
numbers of free electrons move about in the lattice structure of the material in good conductors.
These electrons carry thermal energy from higher temperature region to lower temp. region, in
a similar way they transport electric charge. Infact, these electrons are frequently referred as
electron gas .energy may also be transferred as vibrational energy in the lattice structure of the
material .in general, however, this mode of energy transfer is not as large as electron transport
and hence ,good electrical conductors are always good heat conductors, e.g copper ,silver etc.
However, with increase in temp., lattice vibrations come in the way of transport by free
electrons and for most the metals thermal conductivity decreases with increase in temp.
electrons transport and it is for this reason that good electrical conductors are almost always good heat
conductor viz. Copper, Aluminium and silver. With increase in the temperature, however the increased
lattice vibrations come in the way of the transport by free electrons for most of the pure metals the
thermal conductivity y decreases with increase in the temperature.

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APPARATUS:
The experimental set up consists of the metal bar, one end of which is heated b y an
electric heater while the other end of the bar projects inside the cooling water jacket. The
middle portion of the bar is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos
insulating powder. The temperature of the bar is measured at eight different sections
while the radial temperature distribution is measured by separate thermocouples at two
different sections in the insulating shell.
The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input. Water under
constant heat condition is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature
rise are noted.
SPECIFICATION:

1. Metal bar – Copper, 25 mm O.D., approx. 430 mm long with insulation shell along the
length and water cooled heat sink at the other end.
2. Test length of the bar – 240 mm.
3. Thermocouples – Chromel /alumel, 10 nos.
4. Band Nichrome heater to heat the bar.
5. Dimmerstat to control the heat input – 2A, 230 V.
6. Voltmeter and Ammeter to measure the heater input.
7. Multichannel Digital temperature indicator, 0.1°C least count, 0-200°C with channel
selector switch.
8. Measuring flask to measure water flow.

EXPERIMANTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Start the electric supply.
2. Start heating the bar by adjusting the heater input to, say, 80 volts or 100 volts.
3. Start cooling water supply through the heat sink and adjust it around 350-400 cc per
minute.
4. Bar temperature will start rising. Go on checking the temperature at time intervals of 5
minutes.
5. When all the temperatures remain steady, note down all the observations and complete
the observation table.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Test Bar Tmperature °C Shell Water Water Flow Rate

No. Temp. °C Temp. °C Litr/Sec.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

Using the temperatures of the bar at various points, plot the temperature distribution along
the length of the bar and determine the slopes of the graph ( i.e. temperature drop per unit
length ) dT/dx at the sections AA, BB, CC as shown in figure.

( Note : As the value of temperature goes on decreasing along the length of the bar,
the value of slope dT/dx is negative.)

Heat is flowing through the bar from heater end to water heat sink. When steady state is
reached, heat passing through the section CC of the bar is heat taken by water.

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Schematic Diagram:

1) Heat passing through section CC

Qcc = m. Cp . ∆T
watts Where ,
m = mass flow
rate of cooling water, Kg/s
Cp = specific heat of water
= 4180 J/Kg °C
∆T = (Water outlet temp.) – (Water inlet temp.) °C

Now, Qcc = - Kcc [ dT/dx] . Acc

A = Cross sectional area of the bar = 0.00049 m2

Kcc = ………… W/ m °C

2) Heat passing through section BB

Qbb = Qcc + Radial heat loss between CC & BB

2π. K L1 (T6 - T10)

= Qcc+ ……………………………

Loge (ro / ri)

Where,

k = Thermal conductivity of insulation

= 0.35 W/m°C
L1 = Length of insulation
cylinder = 0.060 m
ro = outer radius
= 0.105 m
ri = inner radius Qbb

= - Kbb [dT/dx]bb .A

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Kbb = ………. W/m°C

3) Similarly, heat passing through section AA Qaa

= Qbb + Radial heat loss between BB & AA

2π. K L2 . (T3 - T9)

= Qbb+ ……………………………

Loge (ro / ri)

Where

L2 = 0.090 m

Qaa = - Kaa [dT/dx]aa .A Kaa = ………. W/m°C

Conclusion:- Thermal conductivity of metal rod is found out to be ---------------

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 EXPERIMENT NO. : 4

AIM: - To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of the composite wall and compare the same
with that calculated from the equation.

THEORY:-

The heat conducted through the composite wall is given by

A(T1−T 2)
Q= L1 + L2 + L3
K1 K2 K3

Q = UA∆T

Where Q = Rate of heat conducted in Watts .

A = Area of Heat flow: m2

∆T = Overall temperature difference: C

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient: W/ m2 -K.

U= 1/(L1/k1 + L2/k2 +L3/k3)

Where L1, L2, L3 are the thickness of the three layers

K1 ,K2 , K3 are the thermal conductivity of the three layers .

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The Apparatus consists of three slabs made of mild steel, asbestos and brass having same thickness. The
three slabs are clamped on both the sides using bolts and nuts. On one side of the composite wall a heater is
provided .The heater input can be varied using a dimmerstat . Thermocouples area embedded at three different
places in each section to find out the average temperature. On the outside of the wall, cooling water jacket is
provided which takes away the heat conducted through the slabs. The mass flow rate of the water and its raise in
temperature can be determined.

SPECIFICATIONS:-

Diameter of the composite wall: D = 150 mm

Thickness of the slab: L = 06 mm

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Thermal conductivity of steel: K1 = 45 W/m-K

Thermal conductivity of asbestos: K2 = 0.1662 W/m-K

Thermal conductivity of brass: K3 =100 W/m-K

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipment to the power supply.

2. Adjust the power input to the required value.
3. Allow sufficient time to attain steady state.
4. Note down all the temperature by operating the knob.
5. Measure water flow rate and its raise in temperature.
6. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

1. Heater Input:

Voltmeter Reading V: volts

Ammeter Reading I: Amps
Heat input VI: Watts

2 .Temperature Measurements C

Hot end
T1 = , T2 = , T3 =

Cold End
T4 = , T5 = , T6 =

Water inlet temperature T7 =

Water outlet temperature T8 =

3. Flow rate of Water in cc/minute =

CALCULATIONS:

17
18
 EXPERIMENT NO. : 5
AIM: To study the heat transfer through the insulating medium (Lagged Pipe)

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of three concentric pipe mounted on suitable stands. The inside pipe consists of
the heater. Between the first two cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is to be done is asbestos
and in between second and third pipe is wooden dust.

The Thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders to measure the temperatures. The input to
the heater is varied through a dimmerstat and measure on a voltmeter, ammeter. The experiment can be
conducted at various of input and calculations can be made accordingly.

SPACIFICATION:

Inside pipe diameter, d1 = 50 mm

Middle pipe diameter, d2 = 100 mm

Outer pipe diameter, d3 = 150 mm

Length of pipe l = 360 mm

Temperature sensor position:

Between T1 and T2 250 mm from each end on the inner pipe.

Between T3 and T4 250 mm from each end on the middle pipe.

Between T5 and T6 250 mm from each end on the outer pipe.

Heater : Nichrome wire heater with control unit capacity of 440 watts max.

Heater control unit 2 Amps.

Single phase Dimmer state 1 No.

Voltmeter 0 – 250 V

Ammeter 0 – 2.5 Amps.

Temperature indicator for thermocouples.

Range 0 – 300° C 1 Nos.

Insulating conductivity (Asbestos), K1 = 0.26 W/m.K.

Insulating conductivity (Saw Dust), K2 = 0.069 W/m.K.

EXPRIEMENTS :

1) To determine the heat flow rate through lagged pipe for known value of thermal conductivity of
lagging material.
2) To plot the temperature distribution across the lagging material.
18

19
LIMITS AND PRECAUTIONS :

1) Keep dimmerstat to zero position before start.

2) Increase voltage gradually.
3) Keep the assembly undisturbed while testing.
4) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
EXPRIMENTAL PROCEDURE :

1) Start the supply of heater and by varying dimmerstat adjust the input for desired values by using
voltmeter and ammeter.
2) Take readings of all 6 thermocouples when the steady state is reached.
OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr. Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Thermocouples reading ° C

No. Reading Reading Input T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
V I VI
Volt Amps Watts

1. Mean temperature

2. Heat Supplied = V X I Watts =

3. Heat conducted through composite cylinder

Watts =

4. Effective thermal conductivity

=

=
5. Temperature profile based on Keff

20
 =

Using the above equation find the temperatures for various values of ‘r’ with the composite cylinder and
tabulate theoretical and measured temperature. Then plot the temperature profile.

Radius ‘r’ Calculated Measured

mm Temperature Temperature

°C °C

25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75

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