Satellite Communication

13

Abbreviation (farther from earth) lower will be the

injection velocity needed, since earth’s
Orbit In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally gravitational pull reduces as satellites are
curved trajectory of an object, such as placed farther away.
the trajectory of a planet around a star or A.U Astronomi- The astronomical unit (symbol: au,
a natural satellite around a planet. In the cal Unit or AU or AU) is a unit of length
context of satellite communication, it representing the distance from Earth to
usually refers to an artificial satellite the Sun and is physically about 150
built and launched by humans, and orbit million kilometers, or *8 light minutes
is around the earth. (since light takes 8 min to travel from
Satellite In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is the Sun to the Earth).
an object that has been intentionally LEO Low Earth Orbit, generally considered
placed into orbit, with human endeavor. as 200–2000 km from the earth surface
The very first satellite was “Sputnik” and apogee of up to 1000 km, where
launched in 1957 sending signals to the many remote sensing satellites and space
earth. stations are parked. The inclination
Kepler’s laws of There are three laws by Johannes within this orbit can vary considerably,
planetary Kepler. (1) First one describes how including polar orbit which is 90° (over
motion planets move in elliptical orbits with the north and south pole), that allows “sun
Sun as a focus, (2) The second law states synchronous” orbit, meaning satellite
—a planet covers the same area of space visits the same spot on earth every few
in the same amount of time no matter days.
where it is in its orbit, and (3) the third MEO Medium Earth Orbit, considered as
law states—a planet's orbital period is 2000–35,000 km from the earth surface
proportional to the size of its orbit (its and apogee of up to 20,000 km. Many
semi-major axis). satellites including the GPS are in this
Perigee and In the context of artificial satellites orbit and highly inclined orbits that
apogee around the earth, the point of the orbit cover the globe (Molniya and Tundra) in
closest to Earth is called perigee, while which geosynchronous orbits (satellites
the point farthest from Earth is known take 12 h or 24 h to go around the earth,
as apogee. but are highly inclined and require
Escape velocity The velocity required to escape from the antenna tracking) are in this orbit as
gravitational pull of the earth. This well.
escape velocity is about 11.2 km per GEO Geostationary orbit, is a popular orbit in
second, or approximately 33 times the the equatorial plane at 35,786 km from
speed of sound: MACH 33. the earth. When satellites are parked in
Injection The velocity at which a satellite is this orbit, they appear stationary to
velocity injected into orbit. This is always less viewers on earth. The antenna remains
than escape velocity. Higher the orbit

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 247

K. Raghunandan, Introduction to Wireless Communications and Networks,
Textbooks in Telecommunication Engineering, [Link]
248 13 Satellite Communication

almost stationary with very little or no geostationary and requires tracking

tracking. This feature helps antennas from ground.
communication satellites. Tundra orbit A highly elliptical orbit but with
Navigation Satellites that help in location and “apogee dwelling” feature. This orbit
satellites directions for observers on earth, three also is geosynchronous and with
major satellite systems used for multiple satellites it covers a region on
navigation are GPS, GLONASS, and earth for 24 h. Sirius satellite radio used
Galileo. this orbit to provide broadcast capability
Remote sensing Satellites that continuously scan the for the North American region.
satellites earth surface and send pictures back to Station keeping It is an orbital control process to
the earth. They can be programmed to maintain a satellite stationary within a
highlight features such as minerals, given orbit by using small control
forestry, ocean, and others depending on thruster rockets on satellites. This also
user needs. They use infra-red cameras refers to a routine exercise performed
to avoid the problems of cloud cover. regularly by all satellite agencies, to
PAA—phased A phased array refers to an keep satellite in an allocated position in
array antenna electronically scanned array space.
of antennas, which creates a beam of GEO belt A term commonly used to refer to a
radio waves that can be steered in a library listing by the planetary society
specific direction without physically that lists all the satellites stationed in the
moving the antennas. Such steering is geostationary GEO orbit. This 10-frame
usually accomplished using multiple mosaic of Earth's geostationary satellite
antennas and by dynamically changing belt covers approximately 35° of sky
the phase of signal to each antenna around the GEO orbit.
element. Uplink limited Normally refers to the noise of the
Sentinel-2 Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission uplink that limits the bandwidth
mission comprises a constellation of two available in a communication system.
polar-orbiting satellites placed in the This term refers to both satellite
same sun-synchronous orbit, phased at communication and cellular
180° to each other. It aims at monitoring communication.
variability in land surface conditions, Cryogenically Low Noise Amplifier uses Cryogenic
and its wide swath width (290 km) and cooled amplifier cooling of receivers to reduce their noise
high revisit time (10 days at the equator (LNA) temperature, which is especially
with one satellite, and 5 days with two important in radio astronomy and in
satellites under cloud-free conditions, satellite and deep space communication.
which results in 2–3 days at An antenna is “looking up “ into the sky
mid-latitudes) will support monitoring of and, in the absence of strong celestial
Earth's surface changes. sources (Sun, Moon, planets,
HEO, highly Indicates an elliptic Cassiopeia, Cygnus, Taurus, Virgo,
elliptical orbit orbit with high eccentricity. This Orion, and the galactic plane) in the
usually refers to eccentric angle around antenna beam “sees” a very cold sky:
Earth. 2.725 K of the cosmic microwave
Such extremely elongated orbits have background radiation modified by the
the advantage of long dwell times at a presence of atmosphere. The antenna
point in the sky during the approach to, temperature required is, therefore, one
and descent from, apogee. order of magnitude less than those seen
Molniya orbit A highly elliptical orbit extensively used in terrestrial applications (300 K).
by the erstwhile Soviet Union (Russia). Reduction of receiver noise by
This orbit is geosynchronous since each cryogenic cooling offers an effective
satellite offer 12 h of continuous way of improving radio astronomy
coverage of a region on earth. It is not system sensitivity.
13 Satellite Communication 249

Antenna quality Antenna gain-to-noise-temperature designed to work over the bands

factor G/T (G/T) is a figure of merit in the (<30 MHz) currently used for analog
characterization of antenna. It is radio broadcast including AM,
the ratio of gain of the antenna divided shortwave, and FM bands. DRM is
by the antenna temperature (or system spectrally efficient compared to AM and
temperature if a receiver is specified). FM and supports more stations with
VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal, is a high-quality digital sound. It also
small-sized earth station used to provides two-way communication to
transmit/receive data, voice, and video users (in lower frequency bands). DRM
signals over a satellite communication is also the name of the
network, excluding broadcast television. international non-profit consortium that
VSAT antenna is 1.2 m–3 m diameter designed the platform and now promotes
and operates in the Ku, C, and Ka bands. its introduction. Radio France
It offers high-bandwidth, bidirectional Internationale, TéléDiffusion de
VSAT services for enterprise, France, BBC World Service, Deutsche
government since many users will Welle, Voice of
increasingly migrate to VSAT satellites. America, Telefunken (now Transradio)
Transponder It is a device for receiving a radio signal and Thomcast (now Ampegon) are part
and automatically transmitting a of DRM consortium.
different signal (usually at a different GLONASS GLONASS refers to a system of
frequency). In communication satellite, navigation satellites and consists of an
transponder refers to the series of orbital constellation of 24 satellites
interconnected units that form a covering the entire Russian territory,
communications channel between the since 2011.
receiving and the transmitting antennas. GPS Global Positioning System consists of
EIRP Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power, satellite constellation arranged into six
represents the actual RF power in the air equally spaced orbital planes
in a specific direction It considers surrounding the Earth. The U.S. Space
transmitted power, effective antenna Force has been flying 31 operational
gain, and cable losses into account. GPS satellites for well over a decade.
EIRP is most commonly indicated in Galileo The Galileo System is a global
decibels over isotropic, dBi. navigation satellite system that went live
HPA High Power Amplifier: In satellite in 2016. It was created by the European
communication refers to the high-power Union through the European Space
amplifier (HPA) provides the RF power Agency and operated by the European
for a payload downlink from the Union Agency for the Space Program.
satellite. Before the signal goes into the BeiDou BDS is a global navigation system
HPA, there is a preamplifier that boosts constructed and operated independently
the signal to a level proper for input to by China. The BeiDou navigation
the HPA. These two together form satellite system BDS has completed the
the HPA subsystem. There are two types constellation deployment and started to
of HPA subsystem: the traveling-wave provide global services.
tube amplifier (TWTA) subsystem and Telemetry Telemetry is measurement at a distance.
the solid-state power amplifier (SSPA). In the context of satellite
Satellite downlink beams have very high communication, it refers to measurement
power (up to 100, 000 watts of EIRP in made on satellites and sent back to the
spot beams). TWTA is more often used. earth (downlink only). It is used as a
Some ship-borne heavy duty systems health monitoring system as well as a
also uses simpler HPA in the uplink method to confirm commands sent from
(about 100 W EIRP). earth are implemented.
DRM Digital Radio Mondiale, is a set of Telecommand In the context of satellite
digital audio broadcasting technologies communication, Telecommand
250 13 Satellite Communication

represents a system that sends made in Chap. 9, that this is an important wireless technol-
commands to the satellite (uplink only). ogy, a systematic study of orbits and usage is now in order.
Tracking Satellite tracking consists of a system Johannes Kepler—the seventeenth century mathematician
that involves multiple methods such as and astronomer, proposed three laws of planetary motion
tone ranging, use of PN code to confirm based on his study. They have a direct impact on satellites
the actual position and movement of the launched from earth as well as communication system
satellite system. In recent years, Satellite design. In order to recall, his laws are:
laser ranging has become a
proven geodetic technique. It is the most First Law (Law of Orbits): All planets move about the Sun
accurate technique currently available to in elliptical orbits.
determine the geocentric position of an
Earth satellite. Second Law (Law of Areas): The radius vector joining any
Drone of UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle is an aircraft planet to the Sun, sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths of
without a human pilot, it is often referred time.
to as a drone. UAV is a part of the
system that consists of ground control Third Law (Law of Periods): The “square of the orbital
station for remote control of UAV. They period” of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
are used in a variety of applications, semi-major axis of its orbit. This captures the relationship
reconnaissance, agricultural operations, between the distance of planets from the Sun and their
and others. orbital periods.
Now on to application of the “First Law”. Orbits of planets
around the Sun taught in schools is worth reviewing by
The topic of satellite communication opens fascinating con- applying the first law. Planets orbit around the Sun are actu-
cepts about the universe and stars yet practical aspects of ally in “elliptical orbits” and NOT “circular orbits”. Due to
connecting citizens of the world, no matter where they are elliptical orbits that all planets revolve in, SUN is at one focal
located on earth. In terms of setting up the system, there is point of the ellipse—“Sun is not the center of the circle”. In
considerable risk in getting satellites into any orbit. It is Fig. 13.1, an ellipse is shown with the major axis AB and
important to understand different orbits and how satellites are minor axis CD. If AB becomes equal to CD, then the orbit
visible to different parts of the globe. These factors play a becomes circular. The focal points of the ellipse would come
major role in the design of not only the communication system closer and merge into the center of the circle. Figure 13.1
but also how they are launched, maneuvered into locations in shows the model where all celestial bodies including the earth
space, and oriented in these orbits. It is appropriate to initiate are in elliptical orbit. It shows a somewhat exaggerated
this chapter with a review of such considerations in space. ellipse. Sun is at one focal point (on the left) and other focal
point (on the right) is marked X in space, which has no
celestial body (blank). In mathematical terms, every ellipse
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations has two focal points, but the circle has only one center point,
since the two focal points would merge into one (major and
When “Sputnik” was launched on 4 October 1957, it minor axis become equal forming diagonal).
broadcast basic radio signal at 20.005 MHz and For earth, currently, the maximum distance (from the Sun)
40.002 MHz, discernable to all amateur radio enthusiasts called Aphelion is 152 097 701 km and the minimum dis-
and others. The “Sputnik” satellite was in low earth orbit and tance (from the Sun) called Perihelion is 147 098 074 km. For
transmitted signals only for 3 weeks. Only the basic concept Venus and Mercury that are closer to the Sun, the difference
of how to launch, monitor, and receive signals from space between these two is even less and their orbits appear to be
was established. “almost circular”. For planets farther away from the Sun, the
Later trials involved other orbits and interest in satellite difference is considerable, which means their eccentricity is
communications steadily grew. How did this effort come more, and they appear clearly elliptical [2]. This point was
about and what factors led to communication satellites taking made by Kepler’s teacher and guide Tyco Brahe, who showed
center stage in just a decade after Sputnik? What are the with measurements that planets around the Sun do not have
different orbits used by satellites? To answer such questions, circular orbit, but elliptical, as stated in Kepler’s first law.
a quick review of celestial mechanics is useful. It directly Figure 13.2 shows the orbit of typical satellites as they
affects the wireless aspects of each orbit and their coverage/ are launched from earth (along dotted line from earth). Since
communication aspects. Although the economics of launch- satellites orbit around earth (similar to moon’s orbit, but
ing satellites was discussed in Chap. 8 and some mention was much closer to earth), terms used here are “Perigee”, which
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 251

Fig. 13.1 Celestial bodies orbit

—Sun at one of the focal points
of ellipse Jupiter Saturn

Earth Mars
Venus Uranus

SUN X
A B
Mercury

Neptune

D
CelesƟal bodies ellipƟcal Orbits – Sun at one focal point

means the position of satellite when closest to the earth, and during which satellite’s “velocity continues to decrease”
“Apogee” which is its position when satellite is farthest from (slows down) since earth is pulling it back. The cycle repeats
earth. Since earth revolves from west to east all satellites are and this motion results in an orbit.
launched towards east in order to initially gain earth’s Since satellite is continuously acted upon by earth’s
rotational momentum. View shown in Fig. 13.2 is from top gravitational pull it moves with varying velocity along the
of the earth observed directly above the North Pole. How elliptical path. Such variation in velocity results in varying
does satellite travel in this orbit and what happens to wireless Doppler frequency shift, which must be compensated by the
communication during this orbit (known as transfer orbit)? satellite radio receiver on earth. It is not practical to use
Due to initial velocity imparted by the rocket engines during directional antennas since the satellite is re-orienting all the
launch, satellite moves up to “Perigee” shown on the right. time. Only an omnidirectional antenna can be used to
At that point, satellite is “injected” into orbit—known as communicate to and from the satellite.
point of injection. At Perigee, earth’s gravitational pull takes In summary, due to Kepler’s First law—it implies that
over and satellite starts to fall towards the earth but misses every launch from the earth results in such an “elliptical orbit
the earth’s surface and continues to go away from earth, till of the satellite” around the earth. From this elliptical orbit
Apogee, as shown in Fig. 13.2. (often known as transfer orbit), satellite is maneuvered later
Its velocity comes to zero when it reaches Apogee, where into other orbits. We will expand on this concept further and
it is again horizontal to other side of the earth surface. From see how wireless communication design is adjusted during
there it starts to accelerate towards the earth (bottom of such orbital transfer.
ellipse). Due to earth’s gravitational pull, it accelerates Kepler’s second law states “the body sweeps out equal
towards the earth with “increasing velocity”. It misses the areas in equal lengths of time”, which results in continuously
earth again and goes to the perigee where it again becomes varying speed during elliptical orbit, which can be calcu-
horizontal to earth surface. This results in an elliptical path lated. According to Kepler’s second law, as shown in

Fig. 13.2 Satellite launched into

orbit revolves in elliptical orbit
around earth
252 13 Satellite Communication

Fig. 13.3 Sweeps equal areas in

equal lengths of time

f c
a

Perigee
Apogee
e
Earth
g b

Fig. 13.3, area “a b c” = area “e f g”. This means the time In the example shown in Fig. 13.4, period of Mars can be
taken by the satellite to travel from point b to point c is the calculated using its distance from the Sun. “Period” P of the
same as time taken by the satellite to travel from point f to planet Mars can be described in terms of earth’s days. Mars
point g on the elliptical space. semi-major axis is 1.524 A. U and using Eq. 13.1, period for
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
With this information, it is now possible to infer that Mars ðPMars Þ2 ¼ ð1:524Þ3 ¼ 3:54 and 3:54 = 1.88 earth
satellite travels slowly (lower velocity) when it is far away years, which means * 687 earth days for Mars to revolve
from the earth (approaching Apogee) since f to g is a small around the Sun once. Similarly, it is possible to calculate
distance yet it takes same length of time to move. Satellite Period P, for any satellite that goes around the Sun (in terms
travels faster (higher velocity) when it is closer to the earth of earth time of days hours etc). If it goes around the earth,
(perigee) since distance from b to c is more than that of f to like the moon, then Period of moon to go around the earth
g, but time taken for both is the same. This provides an could be calculated in hours. Instead of relating to earth and
estimate of “Doppler shifts”, which can be compensated by AU, general terms may be used to describe such calculations.
design, during various portions of the elliptical orbit. For the The general equation is:
purpose of basic estimate, it is fair to assume an initial
injection velocity of 11.2 km/s (Mach 33), which is the 4p2
P2 ¼ ðaÞ3 ð13:2Þ
escape velocity from earth’s gravitation pull [3]. GðM þ mÞ
Kepler’s third law describes the connection between
This general equation applies to all planets of our solar
distances and orbital periods—which means how long does
system. P is the period of the planet or time taken for one
it take for the satellite to go around the earth. This not only
revolution around the Sun. M is the mass of the Sun (central
affects tracking the satellite but variable angles and signal
body), which is typically over 1000 times the mass of any of
levels that become important parameters in the design of
its planets. “m” is the mass of the planet, and G is the
earth stations and mobile satellite terminals.
gravitational constant, from Newton’s law of gravitation and
Figure 13.4 shows the relation between semi-major axis
“a” the semi-major axis.
(half the distance from Sun to the orbit) and the period,
which represents one revolution around the Sun. Semi-major   GMm
axis can be described as shown or another common unit is F grav ¼ 2 ð13:3Þ
r
AU or Astronomical Unit. The semi-major axis of the earth
is taken as one A.U, which is 1.496
108 km, as shown in If we apply this equation to something that revolves
Fig. 13.4. Using Kepler’s third law: around the earth (such as moon), then P is the period of
Moon or another satellite, “a” is the semi-major axis of
P2 ¼ a 3 ð13:1Þ moon or another satellite, M is mass of the central body
(earth) = 6
1024 kg, and “m” mass of the moon/satellite
where “P” is the period of earth, and “a” the semi-major and finally the gravitational constant G = 6.67
10–11
axis. m3 kg−1S−2.

Fig. 13.4 Relation between

semi-major axis and orbital Venus
period Earth Mars
SUN
X
Mercury

1.496× 108 km
2.2792 x 108 km
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 253

These equations have profound impact on calcul- often, typically taking between 90 and 120 min per revolu-
ating satellite orbits and how space agencies send artificial tion (period). If pictures are taken, resolution is likely to be
satellites into orbit. One of the most popular orbits is the better. Several systems including space orbiting stations tend
geostationary orbit, which allows the satellite to revolve to stay in this orbit. It is in fact becoming the orbit where
around the earth once in 24 h. Satellites in this orbit appear new space race may begin, see [7]. The main advantage is
stationary to a person standing on earth. This orbit was orig- shorter round-trip delay for both voice and data customers.
inally proposed by Arthur C Clarke and most countries around Iridium satellites (66 of them) have been in service in this
the globe use this orbit for communication satellites [4]. orbit for several decades. But several new entrepreneurs are
coming up with the concept of building a major network in
this orbit to serve customers in areas and regions that are
13.1.1 Types of Orbits: And Global Resource very difficult to be connected by fiber or cellular service.
Perhaps the largest number of satellites in this orbit consists
Why different orbits are considered important global of microsatellites being launched by universities and scien-
resources? Why does the UN (United Nations) have a sep- tific satellites [8]. The current estimates in the orbit are over
arate committee to allocate space for satellites from different 3000, which are expected to grow to almost 12,000 if all the
nations and bodies [5]? The reasons are somewhat complex planned satellites get launched.
yet straightforward. Orbits can be classified into four dif- Astro Physicists and large corporations in the communi-
ferent types based on distance and inclination. Table 13.1 cation business express concerns about the ease with which
shows the different types. Any orbit can use varying incli- rockets and payloads can be built. Major changes in space
nations depending on the mission. Depending on the technology came about due to 3D-printed rocket stages with
demand, allocation of space to satellites allow control of no moving parts [9]. Also, microsatellites that are no bigger
interference and avoid possible collision of satellites. than a bottle of soft drinks are able to perform major experi-
Although inclination is not specified in the table, HEO ments useful to scientific community. Multiple satellites in
has a very steep inclination (discussed later). LEO are expected to crowd this orbit to the point where fur-
Figure 13.5 provides a general concept of different orbits ther launches may be a struggle—since there is little regula-
of satellites around the globe. For example, although LEO tion to stop launching and parking satellites in this orbit.
and MEO are shown with no inclination, polar orbit would At the same time, LEO is essential for all longer space
be directly over the poles with a 90° inclination to earth’s missions such as going to Moon or Mars. It is important for
rotational axis. Relevant details will be indicated during the longer missions to first arrive at the transfer orbit, which is
discussion of those orbits and their application, including GEO (as discussed earlier). LEO offers the right point of
how radio communication is affected by each [Link]: Apogee to take off further towards a interstellar mission
Since all orbits typically start out with Perigee (point like Lunar or Mars mission or even to other planets. Dif-
closest to earth) that is usually considered Low Earth Orbit ferent types of orbits within the LEO range are always to be
(LEO), it is commonly used as “the transfer orbit” for any found, due to University-based scientific satellites [10] and
other orbit—it is the transition used by all satellites. Let us military missions (often not disclosed).
consider satellites that reside in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). With so many satellites orbiting close to the earth, the
prospect of space debris continues to grow. This was discussed
earlier in Chap. 8 and Fig. 8.5 and provides a stark image of
13.1.2 Low Earth Orbit how space debris has grown over the years since the days of
“Sputnik”. There are schemes and proposals to sweep this
Low Earth Orbit is used by a variety of satellites and space debris down with the hope that most of it would burn up as it
stations. Staying in LEO has certain advantages. Being enters earth’s atmosphere. ESA (European Space Agency) has
closer to earth the satellite revolves around the earth more clear plans to start this activity within the next 5 years [11].

Table 13.1 Different types of Orbit Altitude (km)

orbits and altitudes
Perigee (Period) Apogee
LEO: Low Earth Orbit 200–2000, normally 600–1000
MEO: Medium Earth Orbit 2000–GEO normally 10,000–20,000
GEO: Geostationary Orbit Same as Apogee (24 h) 35,862 km
HEO: Highly Elliptical Orbit Molniya (12 h) –500 –40,000
Tundra (24 h) –24,000 –48,000
254 13 Satellite Communication

Fig. 13.5 Different orbits of APOGEE

satellites around the globe

TUNDRA
HEO

MOLNIYA

GEO MEO
LEO

PERIGEE

13.1.3 Medium Earth Orbit additional satellites improves accuracy of user’s position,
but it is not an objective of the “expansion”.
Medium Earth Orbit in contrast to LEO is a stable region in Figure 13.6 shows the typical orbital pattern of GPS
space that has seen important satellite systems such as Global satellites, in 6 different orbital planes around the globe,
Navigation System GPS / GLONASS/Galileo, remote sens- having 4 satellites in each of those orbital planes, making a
ing satellites such as IRS, SPOT, and LANDSAT (although total of 24 satellites.
some of them operate at the outer edges of LEO). GPS satellite system was originally started by the US
MEO offers a range of orbits, some are circular, others DoD (Department of Defense) but was made available for
highly elliptical. The most common missions used by most civilian use in the late 1980s. Their popularity resulted in
countries and industry are navigational satellites and remote two other similar navigation satellite systems—both of them
sensing satellites. At the same time, the highly elliptical operate well. GLONASS operated by Russia (earlier Soviet
“Molniya” orbit or its counterpart “Tundra” orbit are used as Union) has been in service since late 1980s and “Galileo”
well. Let us consider each of them to review specifics. operated by European Space Agency is very recent. In view
of their importance for location-based services not only for
[Link] GPS/Navigation Satellite Constellation every cell phone but also many others such as aircraft,
GPS or Global Positioning System consists of at least 24 maritime, and station keeping (time synchronization) of
satellites at any given time. Current estimate is around 33 international networks, there is international cooperation
satellites, the balance of 9 being “standby” or “enhance- between these three agencies. All Galileo receivers are
ment” that is not meant for “essential” service. They are compatible with GPS (no extra hardware required).
arranged in “Six equally spaced circular planes” around the Figure 13.7 shows the frequency bands these three sys-
earth. The satellites are placed in approximately 20,200 km tems operate [12] along with protocol allocations. GPS,
altitude from the earth surface and circle the earth twice a which is the earliest navigation service, operates in three
day. Each plane is occupied by four satellites in prefixed distinct bands:
“slots” on that planar orbit with ascending nodes of the
orbital planes separated by 60° and the planes are inclined GPS L1 Band: 1575.42 MHz with a bandwidth of
55°. This arrangement allows any user on earth to view at 15.345 MHz.
least four satellites from virtually any place on earth. Since
2011, GPS standard allowed for an expansion of number of GPS L2 Band: 1227.6 MHz with a bandwidth of 11 MHz.
satellites to be increased to 27 instead of 24. However, at any
time, 24 satellites are operational and the other three may act GPS L5 Band: 1176.45 MHz with a bandwidth of
as buffer to replace an aging satellite [12]. The use of three 12.5 MHz.
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 255

Fig. 13.6 GPS satellites orbit

around the earth 2 1
3

Fig. 13.7 Navigation service Lower L-Band Upper L-Band

providers and the frequency
bands
ARNS ARNS
RNSS RNSS RNSS RNSS

SAR

E5a E5b
E6 E1
L5 G3 L2 G2 L1 G1

GPS Bands Galileo Bands

GLONASS Bands Galileo SAR downlink

ARNS – AviaƟon Radio NavigaƟon Service RNSS – Radio NavigaƟon Satellite Service
256 13 Satellite Communication

Table 13.2 GNSS message Message type Services Content

allocation and data content
F/NAV OS E5a-1
t/NAV OS/CS E5b-1 and E1-b
C/NAV CS E6b

GPS signal consists of two pseudorandom noise message consists of frames—one of them, the F/NAV
(PRN) codes, along with satellite ephemerides (Broadcast message has a duration of 600 s and it is composed of 12
Ephemerides), which contains position, velocity, and clock sub-frames. In turn, each sub-frame has a duration of 50 s
information for navigation constellations in the Global composed of 5 pages with a duration of 10 s [15]. The
Navigation Satellite System. In addition, ionospheric mod- Galileo signal-in-space data channels transmit different
eling coefficients, status information, system time, and message types according to the general contents shown in
satellite clock corrections are superimposed onto carrier Table 13.2 providing different services. The F/NAV types of
frequencies, L1 and L2. The measured travel times of the message correspond to the OS (Open Service) and the
signal from the satellites to the receivers are used to compute “t/NAV” types of message correspond to both OS and CS
the pseudo ranges. (Commercial Service). Details of Galileo system’s protocols
Commercial receivers with various levels of sophistica- how it tries to provide better accuracy are indicated in detail,
tion can interpret such signals and obtain information of see [15].
local time as well as the latitude and longitude of the The Russian GLONASS was the second system that has
receiver. Such position and time information are crucial not served entire Russian continent with claims of better accu-
only to aircraft and ships that travel around the globe, but racy in the northern high latitude areas including the Arctic
vehicles on earth that travel in areas that drivers may not be Circle. GLONASS Space Segment consists of 24 satellites
familiar with. A major advantage for cellular systems is in three orbital planes with ascending nodes that are 120°
“differential GPS or DGPS”. Every base station tower, apart. Eight satellites are equally spaced in each plane with
which has a fixed location, serves mobiles that move nearby, argument of latitude displacement of 45°. These satellites are
but both see signal from the same three GPS satellites. This in circular orbits at an altitude of 19,100 km, with an
allows them to compute the difference to obtain much better inclination of 64.8°. Each satellite orbits the earth in
accuracy—this is known as DGPS—that has same level of approximately 11 h 15 min. Such spacing of the satellites
accuracy as military vehicles (for which GPS system was provides continuous global coverage of earth’s terrestrial
originally designed) [13]. surface and the near-earth space (such as aircraft) [16].
Fundamentals of navigation are based on a downlink Navigation signal in general has become the primary tool
(broadcast only) signal received by users on earth, in the air to drivers and traveling public. In major cities around the
and at sea. At the very core of every GPS satellite is a highly globe, travelers use GPS or Galileo-based guidance even as
accurate frequency-time source. It is referenced and adjusted pedestrians to walk around the city or within a building
to a primary national laboratory frequency standard, which complex. Its usage is expected to increase substantially.
maintains time accuracy of better than 1 part in 1015 per
day. It translates to time accuracy of better than 1 ns per day [Link] Remote Sensing Satellite Constellations
[14]. Such highly accurate clocks are referenced to the GPS, Orbits used by remote sensing satellites vary in altitude and
to estimate on-board clock inaccuracy to an accepted period but tend to focus on synchronous orbits. Design cri-
national reference time but used around the globe. There are teria tend to revolve around the Sun’s position at a given
Cesium beam standard sources commercially available and place on earth. This provides an opportunity to visit that spot
used in different countries (known as working standards)— around the same time of the day.
all of them periodically check against such master reference Most remote sensing satellite follows the north–south
clocks maintained by national standard laboratories such as transition path, for a good reason. The earth below it tra-
the NIST [14]. This will be elaborated in Chap. 19 where verses west to earth—therefore the satellite’s beam/scan
time measurements are discussed. follows a swath that covers the whole globe over a given
Transmissions from GPS or Galileo or GLONASS sys- period [17]. This feature is particularly helpful in scanning
tems provide frames that arrive as RF signals at the receiver. the earth based on a specific theme—also known as “the-
In Galileo GNSS system, for example, such navigation matic mapping”. Perhaps the most important of such orbits is
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 257

Fig. 13.8 Polar/Sun

synchronous orbits of remote
sensing satellites—swath on
globe

Polar / Sun
Swath / trace on earth for Polar / Sun Synchronous orbits
Synchronous orbit

the “Polar Orbit” in which the satellite moves over the North in 2007, into sun synchronous orbit, provided camera feed of
Pole and South Pole creating a “swath” on earth. Figure 13.8 54.5Mbps in I and 54.5Mbps in Q (I- In phase, Q—
shows typical polar orbit and its swath. quadrature) in the digital JPEG format. It used a compres-
The scan from the satellite and earth’s rotation on its own sion ratio of 1:3.2 with Reed Solomon encryption [18]. Its
axis result in “swath” or a path that satellite’s camera downlink provided throughput rate of 105Mbps using
(usually infra-red) takes as an input. In Fig. 13.8 on the left Phased Array Antenna (PAA) that is directional, controlled
is the polar axis in which satellite moves over North and from a dual-gimbal platform. The spectral range for its
South poles at a fixed altitude. On the right is its scan path or panchromatic camera is 0.45–0.85l m. This spectral range
swath on the earth. Note that the scan has a repetitive pat- used in 2003 by CartoSat-2, represented a limited range of
tern, which can be made “sun synchronous”. That means the sensing objects on earth. In comparison, Table 13.3 repre-
satellite can appear over the same place on earth every “x” sents the Sentinel-2 satellite sensor of European Space
number of days. That “x” depends on the altitude of polar Agency, which uses much wider range of the Spectrum.
orbit. This repetitive pattern illustrated on the right shows Sentinel-2B was launched in March 2017, for details see text
how every part of the globe gets scanned, with repetitive book and web page [19].
scans. Each scan cycle shifts east due to earth’s rotation. Table 13.3 shows the resolution of images from Sentinel-2
Hence, next scan of the same area is shifted further east in satellite; its resolution depends not only on the orbit and alti-
latitude, ultimately after (say 21 days or x days) satellite tude but also on the remote sensor on board. In every satellite
scans the same spot at the same time. senor, it is necessary to store images on board, compress, and
In terms of communication signals back to earth, most of it encrypt them on board and after that send them to the receiving
comes down as camera output that is first compressed at the stations on earth. This complexity results in images sought
satellite and then sent on down link to the earth station below. after by multiple agencies spread across the globe, with
The use of infrared camera is common, in order to avoid varying interests in types of image, varying resolution, and
“cloud cover”. By adapting different filters, the camera can be usage. Remote sensing by satellite has grown into an industry
“tuned” to scan for minerals, for forest cover, for trace of of its own with multiple applications in different bands
water (in deserts) or petroleum reserves. Such information is as indicated in the table. Polar orbit in MEO is one of the
valuable to various agencies and the downloaded camera best ways to provide a wide range of services from such
signal is first decompressed and later further analyzed. Sub- satellites.
sequently, images get color-coded to make it easy for iden-
tifying various resources. Such coded images offer [Link] Molniya and Tundra Satellite
considerable value—which is why Landsat, SPOT, CartoSat, Constellation
and many other satellites became generations of satellites that Not all communication satellites can use the Geo-stationary
continue to provide such services around the globe Fig. 13.8. orbit. The high latitudes of northern Arctic Circle and the
Since there is camera feed information sent to earth, data southern Antarctic Circle cannot be covered by geostation-
throughput rate required on such links tends to be high. For ary satellite (to be discussed in the next section). Therefore,
example, CartoSat-2 was a remote sensing satellite launched Russia started using the Molniya orbit, where satellite orbits
258 13 Satellite Communication

Fig. 13.9 Molniya and Tundra APOGEE

orbits (Sirius satellites in Tundra 13 12
orbit tracks) 14
15 11
16 10
TUNDRA
17 9
18 MOLNIYA 8
7
HEO 19
6
20
5
21
63.4° 4
22
3

23 2
1
0
PERIGEE

Table 13.3 Table of sentinel-2 multispectral imager

Band Central wavelength (Micrometers) Description (Representation of the electromagnetic spectrum) Resolution (m)
Band 1 0.433 Coast aerosol (ultra blue) 60
Band 2 0.490 Blue 10
Band 3 0.560 Green 10
Band 4 0.665 Red 10
Band 5 0.705 Vegetation red edge 20
Band 6 0.740 Vegetation red edge 20
Band 7 0.783 Vegetation red edge 20
Band 8 0.842 Near infrared (NIR) 10
Band 8A 0.865 Narrow near infrared (NIR) 20
Band 9 0.945 Water vapor 60
Band 10 1.375 Shortwave infrared (SWIR)—Cirrus 60
Band 11 1.610 Shortwave infrared (SWIR) 20
Band 12 2.190 Shortwave infrared (SWIR) 20

high above the North Pole for considerable time. Fig- and Tundra are in HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) with an
ure 13.9 shows the Molniya and Tundra orbits (right side). inclination of 63.4° to the earth’s rotational axis, as shown.
Let us review these two orbits in order to understand their Since both orbits are “geosynchronous”, it is important to
advantages and limitations. delve into some details. How are these different from the
Picture on the left shows three broadcast satellites—Sirius popular “geostationary” orbit? Why are these considered
2 and Sirius 3 are in daylight part of North America, while more specific and not widely used? Some of these questions
Sirius 1 (bottom of left picture) is behind southern side of are relevant and may point to an important role for these
globe in night part. Positions of Sirius satellites are shown orbits. Table 13.1 indicated the salient features of different
over a period of 24 hours on the right side in the “Tundra satellite orbits. In highly elliptical orbits, Apogee and Peri-
orbit”. Observe that the three Sirius satellites in Tundra gee have considerable differences. What is meant by
orbit are positioned 8 hours apart. Figure 13.9 left side is geosynchronous—that they take either 12 h (Molniya) or
still image from extracted from an online video (see refer- 24 h (Tundra) to go around the earth once. But to any
ence [44]) that shows how the three satellites orbit with one observer on earth, they are moving continuously and there-
of them behind the earth—or in night time. Both Molniya fore need tracking, which means they are not
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 259

Table 13.4 HEO (Highly Orbital Tundra Molniya Comment

Elliptical Orbits) Tundra and parameter
Molniya orbits—comparison
Period 24 h 12 h (1/2 day) Tundra takes one sidereal day
Longitudes Same longitude Separated by 180° One orbit over USA, next orbit
over Russia
p
4
Inclination of 63.4°,por 63.4°, or Sin1 5
Inclination chosen to cancel out
orbit Sin1 54 perturbation caused by earth’s
bulge at equator
Synchronous Geosynchronous Geosynchronous But not geostationary
Apogee/perigee 48,000/24,000 km 40,000/500 km Tundra is “Apogee dwelling”
Features Avoids passing Needs less launch Molniya was used as comm.
through Van energy. Operates in two Satellite over Russia and as spy
Allen belts parts of globe satellite over USA

“geo-stationary”. By inference, their signal levels vary gain (10,000 times enhancement of signal) were needed and
considerably as well, which means the receiver must be such amplifier would be embedded as part of the antenna
designed to operate over a wide dynamic signal range. mounting on cars or trucks [20] and also reference [44] is an
Both orbits cover the northern hemisphere over extended archive where several satellite orbits are animated showing
period, spending very short periods on the perigee (southern how they orbit the earth—it includes the three Sirius satel-
hemisphere). Hence, their use for coverage of northern lites orbiting the earth.
hemisphere (Canada, Russia, Scandinavia, Japan) is excel- Molniya orbit, on the other hand, has a swinging apogee
lent. Although it requires tracking on earth, there are (12 h over Russia and the next 12 h time over North
advantages to using these orbits for communication America, for example). Due to this swing, it could be shared
satellites. by two regions on opposite sides of earth—one for daytime
What are the differences between Molniya and Tundra (maximum of 12 h, but in reality, about 8 h) while another
orbits? Comparison between them is shown in Table 13.4 during night. By placing two satellites in the same orbit, it
that shows some interesting commonalities and differences. would be possible to switch between them.
Some important facts emerge from this table. Satellites in
the Tundra orbit spend considerable time at the Apogee—
also known as “Apogee dwelling”. Observe in Fig. 13.9 that 13.1.4 Geostationary Orbit
the satellite is visible about 16 h for those living in the
northern hemisphere. In theory if there are two satellites in Earlier, in Fig. 13.5, different orbits were shown—the last
that orbit, it should be sufficient to provide coverage. and most interesting in them is GEO or Geostationary Orbit.
But Sirius Satellite Radio used three satellites in that orbit This orbit was also in Fig. 3.3a and b. It was discussed in
for a practical reason. System concept was to switch satel- Sects. 8.5 and 9.2, for good reasons. It is the most widely
lites when it dipped below 45° elevation in the sky. This is used orbit for communications satellites.
because users of Sirius Satellite received radio broadcast Like any other orbit, it has some limitations—to show its
channels while travelling in vehicles. Many of the roads in advantages and limitations let us consider Fig. 3.3a and b
USA and Canada do have buildings or trees next to them. together, reproduced here as Fig. 13.10 with a few more
Therefore, a high elevation angle (above 45°) provides clear, conceptual details.
continuous coverage from the satellite [20]. From the equatorial plane, the three satellites cover dif-
There are other advantages of Tundra orbit—like a geo- ferent parts of the earth—satellite A covers the Western
stationary orbit, Tundra orbit serves a specific region. Sirius hemisphere area of American region. Satellite B covers most
satellite radio serves North America covering Canada, USA, of Europe and African region. Satellite C covers most of
and Mexico. Similarly, it is possible to use Tundra orbit to Asian region (other side of globe). Both the top view and
cover Scandinavia or Japan for example. There are some equatorial view indicate that the northern Arctic Circle and
limitations—due to high velocity with which satellites travel, the southern Antarctic Circle are not covered. Figure 13.10a
it is essential to provide doppler compensation. Due to shows the coverage beams from the satellite skims over the
varying distance from earth, it is necessary to use high gain globe (tangent to the earth’s curvature) at these edges.
amplifier near the receive antenna on vehicle roof. To Considerable parts of northern territory of Russia, Scandi-
receive Sirius radio channels, amplifiers with over 40 dB navia and Canada are not served. Also, these satellites serve
260 13 Satellite Communication

N N B
C B
A E W
S
(a) GeostaƟonary orbit – viewed from equatorial plane
A
(b) GeostaƟonary orbit viewed from above (North Pole)

Fig. 13.10 Views of Geostationary orbit—side view and top view

better if population lives closer to the equator—in those example), the look angle is 21.7° [21]. That is quite a low
countries the satellite dish would directly look up (well angle to look up and depending on weather, good reception
above 60 or 70°) offering an excellent view of the satellite, is not likely. This is true for most parts of North Canada,
with no steering required. But those in the northern or Alaska, Russia, and other land mass in the Arctic Circle.
southern extremes—the look angle is quite steep. For Figure 13.10a indicates two types of natural drift of the
example, at the southern part of Norway (Oslo city for satellite. As an example on satellite B-the North–South drift

Fig. 13.11 Geostationary orbit—crowded with satellites in different frequency bands

13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations 261

is indicated by up and down arrows, and the East–West drift India, Kazakhstan, and Japan. The risk of launching is quite
indicated by the left and right arrows. Such drifts occur on high. Therefore, launch insurance is proportionately high as
every satellite over a period of time due to variations in well [26]. There is a serious attempt to change this situation
gravitation pull and other forces acting on the satellite in —in particular, SpaceX is a company challenging conven-
orbit. Usually, satellites carry small thrusters or gas bottles tional launch vehicles, by building re-usable rockets. With a
that are used to counter the effect of such drifts. These large number of launches to its credit, the company has a
thrusters are used to compensate for such “drifts”. This is goal of making space travel a commercial venture [27].
known as “station keeping”. Typically, satellites at the end There are several innovative concepts including 3D printing
of their life are allowed to drift, gradually reducing their of rocket engines that could change the concept of space
availability from 24 h a day, to 23 and then 22/day etc. launch/travel much easier.
Eventually, the on-board systems are turned off to allow a Allocation of spots on a specific orbit is regulated by the
new satellite to occupy its original spot. Unlike low earth UN with its agency ITU (International Telecommunications
orbits, the GEO orbit is so far away and being circular, there Union). All commercial satellites going into orbit must fol-
is no way that these satellites will fall back to earth. They low a well-regulated, dated, process that allocates parking
will become space debris in that orbit’s region. rights to specific satellites [28]. It is not possible to regulate
On the positive note, major populations of the globe live either military launches or others that are specific to a short
further south and closer to the equator (most countries in science experiment. However, enforcement of these parking
Asia, Australia, South America, Africa etc.—they would like rights becomes an issue, since a body that has the ability to
to use this orbit. Competition to get a spot on this circle is enforce is needed.
quite severe, therefore they have to apply for a slot on this Those countries with a large market have also enacted
orbit [22]. Due to such fierce competition, certain practical laws to govern. The “Open-Market Reorganization for the
aspects immediately come to the fore. If satellites are placed Betterment of International Telecommunications” Act, or
too close to each other (on this circle), there will be inter- ORBIT Act, is an important law that governs the satellite
ference. It has been determined that separation is required industry in the USA. The “ORBIT” Act was signed into law
due to beam width of uplink transmitters from ground [23]. in the year 2000. This law came into effect due to privati-
Figure 13.11 shows a view of satellites placed in this GEO zation of two historically intergovernmental satellite orga-
orbit (517 listed at end of 2019). nizations—Intelsat and Inmarsat. Since both of these
There are companies such as INTELSAT (International organizations control sizable allocations in the GEO orbit,
Telecommunication Satellite) who are mainly in the business ORBIT law was designed to manage privatization of major
of launching and parking satellites in this orbit, which can be satellite constellations. The ORBIT Act is cited as a
leased [24]. All international communications typically go benchmark for auctioning of satellite spectrum, which is at
through such satellites. Globally, INTELSAT operates over the heart of satellite industry in terms of interference.
50 satellites (mostly in the GEO orbit) and also has its own
terrestrial network to extend its operations using fiber and
extend its network to customer locations. Such companies 13.3 Uplink and Downlink Considerations
may place multiple satellites close to each other, by placing
adjacent satellites in frequency bands considerably sepa- Now on to the practical aspect of using the frequency
rated. For a current list of satellites in this orbit, please see spectrum itself. In early days of satellite industry, the
[25]. Such staggering numbers show how crowded this orbit satellites were small, had limited battery power, and could
is. At an altitude of 35,786 km, this separation translates to only deploy small antennas, whether it was omnidirectional
roughly 1 km apart. (simplest form is a metallic stick—much like those on tra-
ditional cars), or a parabolic dish directed towards the earth.
The onus, therefore, fell on receiving stations, which needed
13.2 Global Markets and Allocations very large dishes (typically 20 m or larger radius). The word
“satellite earth station” still brings visions of very large
Global market for satellite communication, remote sensing, dishes mounted on massive structural frame, with sophisti-
GEO, and other applications is very active. Scientific and cated systems to track the satellite.
other communities (including amateur radio) have an interest
in this satellite launching as well. It is important to note that
number of companies capable of building satellites is quite 13.3.1 Satellite Earth Stations
large and diverse. However, agencies that can launch satel-
lites are somewhat limited—only seven countries are in the Such satellite earth stations are in use today although
launching business—USA, Russia, France (ESA), China, antenna size has reduced. They work as gateways through
262 13 Satellite Communication

which satellites are controlled and their services extended on receiver in a pool of cryogenic liquid [29]. If we consider
earth using landline networks. At the heart of these receivers signals arriving from galactic missions such as those from
is a “Low Noise Amplifier” or LNA. What is “Low Noise” Mars or beyond, the signal is extremely weak. Amplification
and why is this necessary? When a receiver is wide open and using this method and cooling to very low temperatures be-
waits to receive a very weak signal coming from a faraway come essential for all galactic communication.
satellite, it is bound to receive noise along with that signal. Since the uplink to the satellite was from major satellite
ground stations, the assumption was that transmitted power
ZB can be high. This is true and uplink power in hundreds of
Noise Power PN ¼ No=2df: ð13:4Þ watts with focused beam towards satellite was considered in
B such links. Even if transmitted power was in kilowatts, the
signal received at the satellite was only of reasonable level,
Where N 0 is noise density in Watts/Hz, and PN is equal to
since antenna on a satellite cannot be very large. Such
N o B and B is bandwidth in Hz.
cryogenically cooled systems on satellite are not practical
This Noise power can be expressed in Watts as.
either. In view of such limitations, all satellite systems are
PN ¼ 4kTB ðWÞ: ð13:5Þ “uplink limited”. This means the signal level received at the
satellite determines the limit of bandwidth and data
Where, throughput that can be supported. This is a key statement
PN = Noise Power, in Watts applicable to all cellular systems as well [30]. Therefore, any
k = the Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 X 1023 J/K), signal sent from a cell phone (in cellular) and received at the
B = Bandwidth of the receiver. base station, determines whether communication is possible.
T = Absolute temperature (Kelvin) (17o Cor290KÞ. Note that in earlier chapter on cellular, it was mentioned that
Equations 13.4 and 13.5 are fundamental to all telecom- the cell phone can hardly send 200mW on to the air. What is
munication systems. If we consider the signal arriving from received at the base station site is “limited” by how far the
a typical satellite, it has typical bandwidth of B = 500 MHz cell phone is from the base station.
or more which needs quite a wide opening in the receiver The G/T or Gain/Temperature ratio is an important figure
bandwidth. Since k is a constant, the only option to reduce of merit for all satellite earth stations. What is G/T and how
noise power will be to reduce T—the absolute temperature. is it relevant? To answer this question, let us consider
In early satellite systems, such temperature reduction was uplink/downlink.
achieved by using receiver amplifiers kept in a cryogenic In Fig. 13.12, the uplink (on the left) consists of HPA
liquid such as liquid Nitrogen. Such cryogenics help reduce T (High Power Amplifier) that enhances the power from
from 270 to 20 K for example. While the large dish antenna satellite transmitter (Transmitter + Receiver = Transceiver)
manages to receive the weak signal, whose level so low, that and sends that signal to the antenna. The output power Pt
signal must be amplified by at least 100,000 to 1000,000 from that HPA is quite high, as indicated earlier. The Gain of
times! With such large amplification, the noise also amplifies. the uplink transmit Gt of the antenna is an important spec-
In order to limit the noise power, it is necessary to keep ification. EIRP (Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power) of the

Fig. 13.12 Satellite link budget

with key parameters

EIRP Down
G / T and SPD

Uplink path loss Downlink path loss

Rain aƩenuaƟon Rain aƩenuaƟon
G/T Earth StaƟon

EIRP Up

Gt
Pt
LNA / Transceiver
HPA / Transceiver Typical Satellite Link parameters
13.3 Uplink and Downlink Considerations 263

uplink is the actual power Pt multiplied by the Gain Gt of the where,

antenna. This represents the radiated power (relative to the
ideal isotropic power). What EIRP means is Radiated Power T Dmin ¼ T sky þ T Ground þ T R ðKÞ ð13:9Þ
squeezed into the narrow beam that is sent towards the The combined effect of feeder loss and rain attenuation is
satellite. represented by DELTA (dB), which is given by
On the way to the satellite signal incurs path loss (about
36000 km if satellite is in GEO) and other attenuation such DELTAðdBÞ ¼ LFRx þ 10 logT D  10 logT D min ð13:10Þ
as those due to rain. Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) is com-
In Eq. 13.10, T D represents the downlink system noise
mon to all wireless systems and is calculated by the
temperature and T A represents the Antenna noise tempera-
equation:
ture given by the following equation.
 
4pdf 2 1
FSPL ¼ ð13:6Þ TA ¼
T sky
þ T m ð1  Þ þ T Ground ðKÞ ð13:11Þ
c T Rain ARain

where, FSPL = Free Space Path Loss, c = speed of light, LFRx represents Receiver’s Feeder Loss. The feeder loss can,
d = distance from transmitter to receiver (in meters), and rain attenuation, vary depending on frequency of oper-
f = frequency in Hz. In addition, signal incurs rain attenu- ation. In addition, rain attenuation varies considerably
ation, which can be severe at higher frequency bands. The depending on different regions of the earth. Due to such
detailed description of how to calculate the path loss, various factors, the values in Eqs. 13.7, 13.8, and 13.9 will be
factors involved in the uplink and down link are described in modified by DELTA shown in Eq. 13.10. It is beyond the
both references [30, 31]. Satellite antenna aperture is closely scope of this book to undertake a detailed exercise in cal-
related to quality factor (G/T value) of any earth sta- culation of losses for specific region on earth. Usually, such
tion. G/T value and the satellite power demand, which is calculations are performed at the time of design by con-
equivalent of bandwidth, have logarithmic linear relation- sulting rainfall and DELTA tables that are available in [30,
ship. The value of equivalent is stated as “bandwidth 31].
increases when antenna aperture is narrower”. In view of intricacies involved in arriving at G/T, when
The figure of merit (G/T) of an Earth Station is maximum selecting earth station aperture, we cannot use simple logic
when there is no de-pointing loss, no feeder loss, no polar- —“the smaller, the better”. Earth station aperture is selected
ization mismatch, and no rain attenuation [31]. The maxi- as careful compromise between space overhead (equivalent
mum value will be: bandwidth) and ground overhead (antenna aperture) to
    achieve optimum allocation. Such a balanced system is
G 1  1 
¼ ðGR max ÞES K ð13:7Þ VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal). To illustrate this
T ES max TD min
point, let us consider the values shown in Table 13.5, [31].
OR when expressed in dB, it will be Observe that the value of gain is somewhat proportional
  but in higher frequency bands the G/T doubles (3 dB gain is
G double) when diameter is increased from 6 to 10 m. Erecting
ðdBK 1 Þ ¼ ðGRmax ÞdBi  10 log T Dmin ð13:8Þ
T ESmax such large dishes on mobile platforms like car or truck or
small boats is not practical. Small terminals are therefore an

Table 13.5 Typical G/T for Hub C Band

Stations (elevation angle
E = 35 deg) Antenna diameter 3 ma + 6ma + 10 m
G/T clear sky 19 dB/K 25 dB/K 29 dB/K
G/T (rain (0.01%) * 18 dB/K 23 dB/K 28 dB/K
Ku Band
Antenna diameter 3 ma + 6m 10 m
G/T clear sky 26 dB/K 33 dB/K 37 dB/K
G/T rain (0.01%) ** 22 dB/K 29 dB/K 34 dB/K
*
Tropical or equatorial climate location, ** Temperate climate location + No tracking— “a” is aperture of
fixed antenna.
264 13 Satellite Communication

excellent compromise. This is why VSAT (Very Small method of FDM (Frequency Division Multiplex) is only the
Aperture Terminal) became popular in satellite communi- first step, followed by step 2 which is to demodulate and use
cations. VSAT terminals vary from 1.2 m to 3 m is diameter a separate modulation while sending back. It fundamentally
and serve well providing reasonable throughput supporting relieves the burden of carrying on with noise that came due
voice and data communication. to uplink. Such “Active Satellites” helped greatly in pro-
viding broadband services, better equipped to handle digital
streams.
13.3.2 Transponders on Satellites: Noise
Considerations
13.3.3 VSAT: Terminals
Every communication satellite uses “transponders”—what is
a transponder? Unlike typical communication systems on VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals) uses the concept
earth where a “transceiver” is used, there are additional shown in Table 13.5 and serves a wide range of users such as
constraints when they are received on satellite. It was already those in remote areas, to provide Internet access as well as
indicated that satellite link is “uplink limited”. In addition, it TV services. They use conventional dish antennas that are
was also seen that there is a considerable difference between not very large but with narrow aperture. They can be in a
power transmitted and received. These two factors come into fixed location, or mounted on smaller marine (boats, yachts,
their own during satellite communication system design. It and others), even mounted on vehicles such as trucks or
becomes important to first receive the signal, “frequency recreation vehicles. VSAT units are a compromise between
shift it” and then transmit it back to earth. This concept of the large, heavy, commercial ship borne antenna units and
shifting the frequency provides two-fold advantage. the pocket size user terminal.

1. Terminals on earth can observe that satellite “locks” on

to the signal sent from that ground station. This helps in 13.3.4 VSAT Satellite Users: Portable, Vehicle
keeping signal tracked due to considerable delay in the Borne, and Ship Borne
transmit/receive sequence resulting in a round trip delay
(*320 mS). Now, let us address the practical consideration of supporting
2. The frequencies of transmit and receive are kept far apart, a wide range of satellite services throughout the globe, by
typically 1500 MHz or more, such that the FSPL of the taking examples of Intelsat and Inmarsat. Commercial
two are somewhat different. This helps in balancing the satellites now are quite large, typically weighing a few tons
uplink and downlink power levels. while the ground segment is small, mobile, and agile—
which means the ground-based user terminals are mounted
The word transponder indicates the communication sys- on cars, trucks, or ships. Satellite terminals also include
tem onboard satellites does two functions “translation” and portable handsets, which are the same size as cell phones.
“response”. Frequency translation (shifting it considerably) Intelsat and Inmarsat are only used here as examples—there
and responding to the signal sent from earth, by locking on are multitude of service providers that use other technologies
to that signal as a frequency source to lock on to. and not in GEO orbit, such as Iridium (constellation of 66
Later during the concept of “translation” grew into satellites) and also CDMA.
another concept known as “active satellite”. What this meant To support a wide range of uplink power levels coming
was instead of being a passive “transfer and response” unit, from variety of user terminals, Inmarsat offers BGAN
the unit took on the “active” role of actually “decoding the (Broadband Global Area Network). This supports customers
signal”. What this meant was that the uplink received from such as military, explorers visiting remote areas, forest ser-
ground, would be demodulated, the data stream of layer-2 vices, and other Government services including disaster
taken through a buffer, re-modulated using a different recovery. The battery used in some of the smaller, portable
on-board method and sent back to earth. Why do such an devices set the lower limit on transmitted power on uplink
exercise? The reason again was “to reduce noise”. By the which is 2 W or less [32]. Many ground-based portable user
time signal traveled 36,000 km, it becomes weak and must units use simple stub antenna (like 3G or earlier model cell
be amplified by the satellite receiver unit. This results in phones). At remote locations, users may use Panel Antenna
increased noise, as was explained earlier using Eqs. 13.4 and whose gain is higher than a simple stub—effective EIRP in
13.5. By demodulating the signal first and then mounting it the range of 5 W or more, an example of which is shown in
on a different carrier, the uplink noise is eliminated [31]. Fig. 13.13 (left).
This can mean several things. Uplink receiver can use In Fig. 13.13b, on the right side shows vehicular users
TDMA while downlink could use CDMA. It also meant the who may be explorers using a sophisticated dish on top of
13.3 Uplink and Downlink Considerations 265

Rugged laptop with BGAN panel antenna

Roof mounted antenna with satellite tracking

Fig. 13.13 Broadband Satellite service examples portable panel, vehicle-mounted dish

Fig. 13.14 Above Deck

Equipment (ADE) and stabilized
antenna platform

the vehicle. Such dishes though small are three-axis stabi- to the antenna, to maximize the signal that can be trans-
lized allowing antenna to be oriented towards satellite using mitted. Similarly, the LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) is right
smaller aperture providing much higher uplink power in the next the receiver section of the antenna to minimize noise.
range of 10 W or more. These are medium sized in terms of The diplexer which combines the transmit and receive signal
power on the uplink. Much large units shown in Fig. 13.14, also is on the same mount. All of these unit functions will be
that are found on large ships where they are essential link to discussed further in Chap. 14 (microwave systems) and in
the outside world. Chap. 18 (Antenna and transmission lines). Salient features
At the upper end of uplink power are the ship-borne units. of such ship borne units are:
Ships are capable of carrying very heavy antenna structures
supporting a wider range of services. Some of these • Automatic Skew Control—to improve horizontal radia-
sophisticated antenna units incorporate “Dynamic Beam tion reception
Tilting” technology, which allows satellite signal lock using • Antenna Control Unit—beam and direction control, helps
intelligent real-time beam analysis to eliminate signal skips, targeting correct satellite
pixilation, and loss of service [32]. Figure 13.14 ADE • Built-in HDTV Module—allows high-quality service
(Above Deck Equipment) shows on the left, how such a • Built-in Trisat Function—search and lock for three
large unit is built on the deck of a ship. On the right is an satellites in C, Ku, and Ka bands
image of what is inside the antenna unit (with radome out- • Built-in GPS System—position, navigation
side). Note that the HPA (High Power Amplifier is right next
266 13 Satellite Communication

• GPS Interface—connection to other maritime • Broadcast—this includes radio and TV, but both are
communications “receive only” (downlink)
• Compatible Satellite TV Service—select from global list • Navigation—includes GPS, Galileo, and GLONASS but
of satellites in the area are “receive only” (downlink)
• Radome covering the antenna—passive cover to shield • Remote Sensing—using cameras on the uplink and video
from rain, snow, wind. stream on downlink
• Telecommunication—majority of services use both
Figure 13.14 shows the three-axis stabilized antenna uplink and downlink.
platform commonly used on ships [33]. On the left is a
conceptual view of how this platform is enclosed within a How do these applications affect wireless design? For the
Radome and mounted on steel pipe above the deck. The steel end users, it has considerable impact—since they will not
pipe also carries cables connecting to the antenna system. have to transmit towards the satellite. Given that Broadcast
Right side of Fig. 13.14 shows the stabilized antenna plat- and Navigation are one-way (from satellite to ground) ser-
form (inside Radome), which has many of the elements vice, it is important that the power on this downlink must be
described earlier, such as HPA, LNA, and parabolic dish, as kept substantial. This is mainly due to simple receiver design
indicated in [33]. (receiver chipset focuses on small battery size and simple,
What are the benefits of such heavy units used in marine embedded antenna). The receiver on ground only has the
communications? For ocean-going vessels, the satellite link ability to receive and cannot communicate back to the
could be the only reliable means of communications, the unit satellite. The service provider will take care of uplink to the
must provide focus on reliability. With such features, it is satellite that has other functions. Let us consider a few more
possible to provide high-quality, high-definition TV ser- details, to understand how such services are implemented.
vices, in addition to normal voice and data communication,
for all passengers on board such ships. Ship-borne units use
directional antenna mounted on a three-axis stabilized plat- 13.4.1 Satellites for Broadcast
form that can be locked on to the satellite. They are large
(antenna dish can be 240 cm) and heavier (up to 700 kg) but Broadcast TV and Radio via satellites are excellent examples
providing considerably more uplink power towards the of using satellite to distribute audio and video programs.
satellite (typically above 100 Watts EIRP). This is a fairly complex venture since studios where pro-
Again, the “uplink limited” statement holds good here, grams are made may belong to multitude of agencies. The
irrespective of the type of antenna system used from ground. distribution also may involve multiple agencies. However,
This is the result of earth-based antennas from users who the biggest factor that drives the broadcast industry to use
generally tend to be mobile and therefore may provide about satellites is widespread coverage (several continents). The
100 W of EIRP (max). In comparison, large satellites of programs may be broadcasted not only nationally; it may
Inmarsat [32] provide maximum sustainable downlink serve different regions in the area and also provide feeds to
power with EIRP values from the satellite being 20Watts (43 the Internet for global coverage.
dBm) for global beams, 800Watts (58 dBm) for regional In order to get a better understanding, let us consider the
beams, and 10000Watts (70 dBm) for spot beams, respec- overall system diagram. This will provide an overview of
tively. Spot beams therefore provide considerably more communication subsystems and different agencies that may
power towards specific areas, than any of the uplinks. In own and operate them. Uplink from such agencies is typi-
each of these cases, uplink power from users tends to be cally in the upper GHz bands in order to provide ample
lower than these downlink values. bandwidth for sending a variety of programs. The downlink
from satellite will be usually in the lower bands, to accom-
modate simpler handsets and mobile users.
13.4 Applications: Broadcast, Telecom, Active transponders discussed earlier in Sect. 13.3.2
Navigation come into effect for such large bandwidth, or broadband
satellite systems. Active transponders allow onboard
There are several applications of satellites services. Four transponder to handle different data streams mounted on
major services are reviewed here showing considerations carriers at different frequency bands. The active transmitter
important to user in terms of system operation. Major ser- on satellite generates a downlink carrier phase and frequency
vices are: coherent with the uplink carrier. It allows measurement of
13.4 Applications: Broadcast, Telecom, Navigation 267

Fig. 13.15 Configuration of mobile communication and broadcast system—agencies

Doppler by the ground station, thereby helping the location to western islands of Japan that are close to south china
of satellite more accurately. This feature indirectly helps sea.
prolong the life of the satellite.
An example from Japan is provided in Fig. 13.15 where In the industry, similar efforts by different companies are
different user agencies are listed [34]. Several radio com- common. Users of such satellite broadcast systems have
ponents discussed earlier in this chapter, such as LNA, unique advantages. Their favorite TV programs are available
Satellite Signal Power Amplifier (SSPA), Beam forming “Direct-To Home (DTH)” —this is much different from the
network—are all indicated in the diagram. cable TV or other methods to bring programs to home users.
Over the air broadcast using FM for TV and AM/FM for
1. The uplink is provided using satellite base station of the audio, used to restrict services to no more than 50 or 60 km
National space development agency (NASDA). distance at best. Also, mobile users who commute to work
2. Since on-board systems involve new technologies such can use satellite signals to cover large regions where their
as on-board switching, the Advanced Research lab favorite radio or TV is now available.
develops many of these parts (ASC). Over the past two decades, there was a global realization
3. Since the satellite uses a sophisticated beam forming that digital audio satellite coverage allows broadcasting
network covering Japan with multiple beams—provided agencies to offer programs globally. This resulted in the
by multiple agencies such as space research lab, com- culmination of global standard known as DRM (Digital
munication research lab, Nippon Telegraph, and Tele- Radio Mondiale). DRM digital radio is the global standard
phone Corporation, participate. that offers new broadcasting services to local, regional,
4. Antenna reflectors on the satellite that directly provide national, and international audiences. It is internationally
links to users—are serviced by the national space recognized system for digitizing radio in all frequency bands
agency (NASDA). [35]. Broadcasting radio programs on short wave, medium
5. The national space agency also provides a high accuracy wave, and long waves (AM frequencies), as well as in the
clock system—this is because the broadcast studio sends VHF frequencies improves quality of broadcast. DRM is a
a stream whose header must be accurately in sync with non-proprietary, open standard (no company owns the
different parts of the region (from eastern islands of Japan technology), which can be implemented by any broadcaster.
268 13 Satellite Communication

Fig. 13.16 Improvement in RESOLUTION

accuracy (remote sensing) over (m)
the years
100
CORONA

LANDSAT-1

10 SPOT-1

Early Bird
1
FUTURE

1960 1972 1986 1997 2010

Time (Years)

It is recommended and endorsed by relevant international is scanned by the satellite and signals received from this area
organizations such as ITU and ETSI. are processed. Whatever is within the swath, its property in
terms of whether it contains minerals, water, or forest or any
other feature is revealed by processing. Therefore, it is
13.4.2 Satellites for Navigation important that the swath and its accuracy are improved.
Figure 13.16 tries to address some of these ques-
Review of satellites for navigation was in Sect. 13.3. Let us tions about swath, in terms of improvement in accuracy. In
consider the uplink for navigation. What do operating fact, Fig. 13.16 represents the resolution of land area pre-
agencies provide on the uplink to satellite that makes them cisely measured during repetitive visits to the same area by
so useful and accurate? the same satellite—higher accuracy is due to improvements
The concept of navigation is based on satellite ephemeris, in technology [37]. The improvement in terms of accuracy
which is a complex satellite range scheduling problem. and resolution is indicated as milestones in remote sensing
Navigation data to user include satellite ephemeris, clock satellites over the years. Fundamental to such accuracy are
error, satellite almanac, and ionosphere parameter. These designs of how carefully cameras mounted on the satellite
must be included in uplink to navigation satellite through frame reduce jitter due to movement of the satellite. After all,
ground stations, so as to improve the accuracy of Position- even minor vibrations on the satellite, in arc seconds trans-
ing, Velocity, and Timing (PVT). In addition, there will late into several meters of change over a distance of
communication between these ground stations. Inaccuracies 20,000 km from where it sees the earth. Such design issues
in connection between them using either Inter Satellite Link were addressed systematically over the years by satellite
(ISL) or through fiber-optic links must be estimated well. builders, improving accuracy of not only land observation
Special algorithms are used to calculate such inaccuracies but maintaining accuracy in orbit, which is affected by
and add them into the uplink [36]. This complexity has to be variations in gravity of earth, moon, and solar wind.
included since most navigation satellites such as GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo, or “BeiDou” are in the MEO orbit.
Uplinks stations must be connected and sent from multiple 13.4.4 Satellites for Telecommunication
locations. All agencies providing navigation services—use in Various Regions
algorithms similar to the one cited in [36] and make con-
tinued efforts to improve accuracy. This is one of the Satellite communication comes into its own in emergency
important features (better location accuracy) readily situations, where there are no other options. It can be at sea or
observed by users. even in towns on hill tops or anywhere on the countryside
with vast farmlands where cellular signal does not reach.
Emergency responders, farmers, trekkers, scout camp orga-
13.4.3 Satellites for Remote Sensing: Accuracy nizers will be quick to point this out. There are many satellites
such as “Iridium satellites”, Globe-star, and others that pro-
Satellites used for remote sensing were reviewed in vide both voice and data traffic. There are others focused on
Fig. 13.8 and it was observed that uplink essentially con- bringing DTH (Digital TV to homes) or IoT (Internet of
sisted of a swath. What is this swath and how accurate are its Things). A concise table with examples of some satellite
boundaries? The swath is a strip of land/sea on earth which service providers and features are listed in Table 13.6.
13.4 Applications: Broadcast, Telecom, Navigation 269

Table 13.6 Satellite Provider Orbit Devices Quality/Cost Comment

communication for various
services—worldwide INMARSAT 13 satellites in the Various types, Highest Land mobile
Geostationary orbit handheld to quality/reasonable service + global
major cost. Allows full maritime services
ship-mounted broadband Internet except in polar
units access circle
Globe-star 48 satellites in the BYOD (Bring Low latency Simpler devices
1400 km orbit with Your Own (60 ms) for and portability
two earth facing Device) + Sat real-time throughout the
antenna arrays Fi Internet + voice globe
service
Iridium 71 satellites in low Popular with a Very reliable and Extensively used
earth orbit at a variety of reasonably priced. by emergency
height 781 km portables and Low latency responders
inclination of 86.4° sets (50 ms)
SES Satellite 56 satellites in High-definition Direct-To-Home Commercial
Geostationary and TV/video (DTH), Cruise, and provider with
16 satellites in DAB radio services at high end
MEO broadcast
Intelsat Over 70 satellites in DTH and high World’s largest Commercial
geostationary orbit throughput satellite network has service with a
Internet. Wide support for disaster variety of
range of devices recovery distribution
systems
Eutelsat 35 satellites in Broadband, DTH and mobility Commercial
geostationary orbit data, video, as the major focus provider with
mobility, services for six
government global regions
Telespazio 10 satellites in LEO Focus on data Space intelligence Various space
security as a service technology services
service
INMARSAT 13 satellites in the Various types, Highest/reasonable. Land mobile
Geostationary orbit handheld to Allows full service + maritime
major broadband Internet services except in
ship-mounted access polar circle
unit

The table confirms several statements made earlier in this adjustments to improve satellite performance, using
chapter—notice considerable operations in LEO orbit, and “telecommand”.
very crowded geostationary orbit. Telecommand is an uplink that helps orientation,
three-axis stabilization, and other maneuvering activities
necessary to keep the satellite at the correct orientation as
13.5 Telemetry, Telecommand, and Tracking well as at the right orbit. It helps open up the solar panel,
orient it towards the Sun for maximum efficiency. Similarly,
This is perhaps an area hardly known to users, but at the core telecommand to unfurl the satellite antenna dish, its solar sail
of work performed by space operators. These three provide boom or other parts are very much the core of how the
the means to launch, maneuver, and maintain satellites in satellite operates efficiently.
orbit. Tracking is a complex and on-going effort to know
Telemetry—as the name indicates “measurement at a exactly where the satellite is—in three-dimensional space.
distance”. Telemetry is a downlink from satellite to the earth Why is this complex? Because the earth we are sitting on is
station. It provides a continuous stream of measured values itself rotating and at various times other celestial objects
of voltage, temperature, pressure, and other parameters on nearby such as the moon and celestial phenomenon such as
board the satellite (health parameters). This is essential for solar wind—move the satellite from its intended position in
the ground station crew to know the health of different an irregular fashion. Tracking helps the earth station oper-
systems and sub-systems. It is possible to make minor ators and technologist know what to predict and how to
270 13 Satellite Communication

navigate the satellite, much like how pilots operate the interference to telemetry on the satellite. Telecommand
aeroplanes in flight on a stormy night. Satellite uses infrared systems perform the following key functions.
sensor to orient towards the earth and during eclipse, it is
important this is turned off. Similarly, operation of the Sun • Power on/off subsystems
sensor is affected by solar eclipse. Otherwise, it can result in • Change subsystem operating modes
the satellite getting confused between earth and another • Control spacecraft guidance and attitude control
celestial body (the sun or moon). • Deploy booms, antennas, solar cell arrays, protective
How does this fit into the wireless communication covers
scheme? The frequency band and reliability of these links • Upload computer programs.
are as important as the service it provides—this may not
seem obvious, but true. This is because TTC (Telemetry Carrier Tracking is a two-way communication between
Tracking and Command) is essential to the very survival of satellite and ground. It uses coherent communication by
the satellite—independent of when and how it provides establishing a frequency lock mechanism on-board, with the
service. Recall that there are satellites that encounter unex- following:
pected events (sun flares), as well as expected events such as
solar eclipse or lunar eclipse that affects its service. To • Transmitter phase locks to the received frequency
recover from such events too, TTC is essential [38]. • Transmitted frequency is a specific ratio of the uplink
Telemetry, for example, requires the following, in a frequency
typical flight: • Easy to find and measure the frequency received on the
Frequencies. ground
–S-band (2.2–2.3 GHz). • Doppler shift provides range rate (distance to satellite and
–C-band (3.7–4.2 GHz). direction of movement).
–Ku-band (11.7–12.2 GHz).
•BER = 105 : Range rate of a satellite as a function of time: range
These bands cannot be used for any other satellite ser- rate is zero at closest approach. The Doppler shifts are
vices. Similarly, for missions that operate far away, such as almost a factor of 7 times smaller than for Earth.
intergalactic missions, distance would dictate operating at Tracking is a technique commonly used by the military to
much lower frequencies, in order to limit path loss. Observe determine whether an aircraft is “friend or foe” by using
that satellite telemetry requires much higher accuracy in similar “lock in” mechanism. In the case of satellite link, the
terms of BER. Typical BER tolerated in cellular systems is distance results in also establishing the range, since it must
102 . Therefore, the telemetry BER requirement of 105 be accounted for during tracking. Ranging is accomplished
would be considered “excellent quality”. as follows:
Telecommand system, in comparison, is even more Uplink pseudo-random code is detected by the satellite
stringent in its BER requirement. The reason is telecommand and retransmitted on the downlink.
can determine whether the satellite survives or is lost in
space. For example, during solar eclipse, if the telecommu- • Turnaround time provides range.
nication is not used to switch over to an omnidirectional • Ground antenna azimuth and elevation determines satel-
antenna, satellite dish orientation after the eclipse could be lite angular location (polar coordinates).
facing away from earth. Therefore, no one on earth can
communicate with that satellite if that ever happens. These Interface requirements for TT&C subsystem is indicated
are not theoretical, but practical experiences in space mis- in Table 13.7 [38].
sions, which have led to very strict methods of communi- TTC remains to be the most reliable part of every space
cating, orienting, and operating satellites. Telecommand mission—which is generally not discussed in satellite user
requirement for a similar flight as above would be: forums, it is exclusive to satellite builders and operators.
Frequencies.
–S-band (1.6–2.2 GHz).
–C-band (5.9–6.5 GHz). 13.6 Satellite Support to Maritime
–Ku-band (14.0–14.5 GHz). and Aeronautical Operations
•BER = 106 .
Also note that the frequencies used within the same band Since satellites in geostationary and LEO / MEO orbits
are considerably away from each other so that the uplink support global operations, why are these two services (aero
frequency (telecommand) and much farther causing no and marine) separately noted? Its importance is in terms of
satellite becoming an essential and only communication for
13.6 Satellite Support to Maritime and Aeronautical Operations 271

Table 13.7 Telemetry Subsystem Requirement

telecommand and tracking
interfaces (On board) Attitude determination and control Antenna pointing
Command and data handling Command and telemetry data rates
Clock, bit sync, and timing requirements
Two-way communication requirements
Autonomous fault detection and recovery
Command and telemetry electrical interface
Electrical power subsystem Distribution requirements
Thermal/structural Heat sinks for power amplifiers
Heat dissipation of all active boxes
Location of TT&C subsystem electronic boxes
Clear field of view and movement for all antennas
Payload Storing of mission data
RF and EMC interface requirements
Special requirements for modulation and coding

these two types of transportation. While operators such as satellites hopes to make it safer for aircraft and sea vessel
the pilot and ship’s captain have other means of communi- travel around the globe.
cation for long time, it is only since the late 70 s that pas-
sengers on board also communicate to the outside world,
using satellite. 13.7 Remote Sensing Drones and Their
There are some differences between the two. Ships by Growth
their very nature are capable of handling heavy antenna on a
gimbled platform (Fig. 13.14), allowing high-quality Drone or UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) started out as a
broadband services such as the BGAN from Inmarsat— hobby but quickly grew into a major industry of its own.
which was discussed earlier. Mounting a fairly large dish on Replacing reconnaissance aircraft, flying in war zones, tak-
a stable platform is not an issue on a ship and routinely done. ing pictures of difficult terrains but at close range are some of
That is not the case for an aircraft. Due to its range of its strong points.
motions in the air and increase in air traffic there is con- The first generation of remote sensing was essentially
siderable effort being put in to have a separate satellite-based performed by pilots using cameras to take pictures (mostly
system to service aircraft [39]. This includes pilot/aircraft by the military). This was followed by the second generation
crew and passengers. For aircraft navigators, such where earth-orbiting satellites (discussed earlier in this
satellite-based navigation services can become a good sup- chapter—remote sensing) took extensive pictures of earth.
plement particularly as aircrafts approach major airports in Such satellites were typically in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for
cities where air traffic other than long haul jets, may be better resolution. The third generation is considered to
considerable. Major airports already allow aircraft landing belong to UAV, which offers a method of remote sensing
and take-off every 90 seconds—such navigation support that may provide pictures with much better resolution than
service from satellites can complement airport-based navi- the first two generations [41]. In fact, the International
gation controllers and to some extent ease their tense work Journal of Remote Sensing considers it a separate branch of
during peak hours. remote sensing with its own section to deal with research
There is another dimension to maritime and aeronautical and operational paper submissions.
operations—watching them using a satellite. While this may In terms of wireless communication, two factors must be
look suspicious, the intent is to scan the planet earth for its considered— (1) type of camera and its throughput, (2) type
RF frequencies and help reduce congestion and interference of wireless system on board and its transmit
in the long term. A new generation of satellites called the power/frequency. In addition, there are other considerations
Hawkeye has started such an effort [40]. Using three small for any designer such as keeping number of components to a
satellites in LEO (about 500 km) the Hawkeye series of minimum and reduce weight, high-quality image and

Table 13.8 Typical Ground sample distance 8 cm per pixel (per band) at 120 m (*400 ft) AGL
specifications of camera used in a
drone Sensor resolution 1280
960 (1.2 MP per EO band)
272 13 Satellite Communication

whether there is enough storage capacity on board. A prac- Initially approached with caution, the field quickly
tical method of doing so is shown in an example at [42]. evolved and has become a very stable and broadband
Such cameras with the specifications indicated in Table 13.8 communication system to regions inaccessible to any other
can fit into a small drone. form of wireless system. The fact that signals from the edge
Most drone users prefer to use an FPV (First Person of galaxy have been sent successfully and accurately, which
Visual) camera, which downloads directly to the user, using provide testimony to design and conceptualization of flight
its on-board transmitter. There are software packages that mechanics and how accurately they are measured at great
allow the user to feel as if you as the user is sitting in the distances using telemetry.
drone. Such radio units with FPV transmitter have 200 Use of satellites whether for Navigation, Remote sensing,
milliwatt, 5.8 GHz, 40 channel video transmitter, it produces TV and Radio broadcast, or vital telecommunication to
an omnidirectional radiation pattern from its circularly emergency service personnel, it is an integral part of
polarized antenna [43]. This is typical of any Access Point at modern-day life for everyone. Those in business, entertain-
home. It is best to use circularly polarized antenna since the ment, exploration, or disaster recovery—increasing rely on
orientation of drone will not result in losing contact with the the services provided by satellites.
transmitter. This is essential due to the telecommand and Will there be a limit to the number of satellites in each
telemetry, as discussed in the previous section. It is also orbit? Everyone skeptical has been proved wrong by con-
important to choose a transmitter whose frequency is not tinuous use of ever-improving technology. It is therefore
very high—this is directly related to range from the user. It is difficult to conclude that there will be any limit to what
also possible to use a combination of omnidirectional as well satellites can do. If anything, it is moving in the positive
as high gain antenna. Once near the target area, receiving the direction, with more companies, Universities, and amateur
spectral feed from the camera on directional beam provides radio enthusiasts participating in this grand technology that
better throughput over longer distances. This has to be an truly uses rocket technology to get up there into orbit.
interactive, gradual exercise for every student. Sufficient effort has been made to provide references and
Overall, drones provide a first-hand feel of flying a pointers to those who want to pursue this fascinating area of
camera, which needs multiple skills in terms of navigation, knowledge. There are several applications that entirely
control, and tracking. There are several volunteer organiza- depend on satellites for navigation and guidance. Similarly,
tions that teach such skills to make every student a respon- aircraft and maritime vessels depend on satellites as an
sible aircraft flying amateur. In addition to possibly a essential means of communication with those onshore and in
thrilling activity, it allows the operator to learn about basic the air. VSAT terminals have become the mainstay of such
aspects of aerospace and technical details of how satellites satellite users. The growth in this field is expected to be
are able to sustain, orient themselves and serve humanity. In substantial in the future.
addition to providing a simulated view of orbiting Sirius
satellites, this reference provides useful information to Summary
such enthusiasts [44].
This chapter captures the essence of both spaces, celestial
bodies, and laws of orbits as applied to wireless communi-
13.8 Conclusion cation. Ever since the Telstar communication satellites were
introduced in the late 60 s, this topic of satellite communi-
What started as a fascination to explore the universe with cation resulted in exponential growth. It is a continuum of
Sputnik, quickly evolved into a major necessity by helping fascination that humanity has always had towards outer
citizens of the world communicate. The topic of satellite space—combined with a practical sense of what artificial
communication is integral to and center piece of wireless satellites provide, developed and launched by humans. It
communications. Its system design dictated by orbits and was observed that the laws that govern celestial bodies,
effort to launch them has resulted in something that is quite govern artificial satellites too—they too go into similar
complex. This chapter tries to touch just the surface, elliptical orbits, therefore communicating with them needs a
showing the level of complexity and challenge. similar understanding.
The number of references at the end of this chapter varies This followed details such as different orbits—low earth,
from concepts in Physics, dynamics of flight, and orbits that middle earth, and geostationary orbits. It was shown that
often need 3D view of how it all comes together. The use of multiple satellites are in these three orbits—their character-
modern video simulations is all a post-effort to recall what istics and how and where they can be seen from earth and
has been achieved.
13.8 Conclusion 273

when. Such a review revealed the observation that with the view. Mark some subway / below ground locations
exception of geostationary orbit, satellites in all other orbits where GPS signal is lost.
rise from the horizon and move and dip on the other horizon 3. Many space agencies provide guided tours—write to any
as seen from earth. Therefore, all other orbits need tracking space agency in your area. Can they support some of
antennas or means to adjust by compensating for Doppler your summer projects—with ideas?
effects—while communicating. 4. Using references provided under 13.7 drones section—
Advantages of geostationary orbit, why satellites in this find out if it is possible to build and fly drone with
orbit seem stationary to observer on earth were reviewed cameras.
using multiple diagrams, observations, and references to
video simulations. It was shown that even satellites in geo- Knowledge gained
stationary orbit have limitations—they cannot effectively
cover the Arctic and Antarctic regions of the earth. Separate 1. Different types of orbits, their advantages, and
orbits such as the Molniya and Tundra orbits were discussed, limitations.
with their own unique features. It was shown that despite 2. Geostationary vs other orbits—how many communica-
limitations, these orbits are useful and continue to have tion satellites are deployed in non-GEO orbit. How ser-
satellites. vice providers cope with tracking and handover.
Popular satellite applications such as GPS for navigation, 3. Simplification of ground-based satellite antenna and
Satellite feeds for TV, audio streams around the globe that receiver. Improvements in satellite technology to support
broadcast industry has embraced were reviewed. Commu- mobility.
nication with maritime and aeronautical users revealed 4. Satellite applications for (a) broadcast, (b) navigation,
another dimension of emergency links using satellites in (c) remote sensing, (d) emergency communication.
LEO and MEO orbits. 5. Considerations for satellite beams in different orbits,
Other areas that benefited and have grown, such as types of antennas user can have.
remote sensing and telecommunication across the globe, 6. Advantages of VSAT dish and terminals, difference
experienced exponential grown with support from satellites between high-end broadband service for ships and
in various orbits. These were extensively reviewed with aircraft.
examples from industry.
Finally, the often-unseen part of satellites—telemetry, Homework problems
telecommand, and tracking which mark the foundation of all
space operators, was touched upon. The importance of this 1. Using Eq. 13.3.2 to calculate the noise power in a normal
branch of space technology, why TT&C requires the highest cell phone with 4G service that has 20 MHz bandwidth.
reliability in the satellite system, was indicated with exam- Compare it to a satellite dish that uses 500 MHz
ples. They continue to form the basis of deploying, orient- bandwidth.
ing, and controlling satellites throughout their mission. 2. Using Eq. 13.3.3 to compare the FSPL for a satellite in
The chapter concluded with the recent approach of 750 km LEO orbit with the same satellite placed in GEO
remote sensing using drones—which touches upon the orbit of 36000 km, operating in the C band at 6050 MHz
human fascination of flying something in the air and on the uplink. How much is the difference in signal level
observes things that hitherto were possible only by birds or received? If the satellite sends its downlink at 3800 MHz
creatures could see things from the air. It has opened up an what is the space loss?
entirely new era into remote sensing, complementing 3. In Fig. 13.7, satellite in polar orbit is shown. Trace the
methods used by satellites. swath (on the right side of figure) for two satellites in
polar orbit, one at 900 km altitude and another at
Emphasis on participation 1600 km altitude. How often does the satellite swath
revisit the same place?
1. Contact your local satellite TV service provider and 4. Using Molniya orbit, a satellite is placed to serve Tokyo,
make a few measurements on the received signal. What is and rest of Japan. Beam is designed to serve that country
the antenna gain they use and the frequency band? starting at daytime 6 am till 6 pm. Where can the same
2. Using your cell phone and Fig. 13.7, check how many satellite be used from 6 pm till next morning 6 am?
GPS satellites are there at a time? It may be necessary to 5. If the satellite indicated in problem 4 above was placed
have a good radio receiver in the bands indicated in into Tundra orbit, what happens to the coverage? Can it
Fig. 13.7 to know how many distinct satellites are in be used elsewhere during what times?
274 13 Satellite Communication

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