What is Internet (uppercase “I”)?

• The Internet is a much broader concept, the worldwide connection which is established using the TCP/IP
Internet Protocol Suite.
• This worldwide global system is a collection of various small networks, whether it is a private network, or
public network open to all, a network established by the government for military and government use or
can be a network of any university for research purposes.
• Thus, we can say that the World Wide Web which is popularly known as WWW is referred to as the
Internet, providing a worldwide exchange of data and information and hence making communication
easier.

What is internet (lowercase “i”)?

Hence, an “internet” can be a private network formed by the connection of several (more than 2)
communicating devices.

Introduction: 1-2
1. Internet :

The network formed by the co-operative interconnection of millions of computers, linked together
is called Internet.

2. Intranet :
An Intranet is a local area network that has been designed for use within an organization by its
employees to share information as well as work together. An Intranet is also constructed from
the technologies of the Internet from TCP/IP, HTTP, and web browsers but exist behind a
security firewall and has only a limited number of authorized users.

3. Extranet :
It is the type of network that allows users from outside to access the Intranet of an organization.

Introduction: 1-3
Introduction: 1-5
Introduction: 1-6
Introduction: 1-7
What’s difference between The Internet and The Web ?

• The Internet is a global network of networks while the Web, also referred to formally as World Wide
Web (www) is a collection of information that is accessed via the Internet.

• Alternatively, the Internet can be viewed as a big book store while the Web can be viewed as a
collection of books on that store.

• At a high level, we can even think of the Internet as hardware and the Web as software!

Introduction: 1-8
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
Billions of connected mobile network
computing devices: national or global ISP
▪ hosts = end systems

Packet switches: forward

packets (chunks of data) local or
Internet
regional
▪ routers, switches ISP
home network content
Communication links provider
network datacenter
▪ fiber, copper, radio, satellite network

▪ transmission rate: bandwidth

Networks
enterprise
▪ collection of devices, routers, network
links: managed by an
organization Introduction: 1-9
 The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
4G
• Internet: “network of networks” national or global ISP

• Interconnected ISPs
Streaming
IP
Skype video

local or
regional
ISP
▪ protocols are everywhere home network content
• control sending, receiving of HTTP
provider
network datacenter
messages network
Ethernet
• e.g., HTTP (Web), streaming video,
Skype, TCP, IP, WiFi, 4/5G, Ethernet TCP
enterprise
network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-10
What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: Network protocols:
▪ “what’s the time?” ▪ computers (devices) rather than humans
▪ “I have a question” ▪ all communication activity in Internet
▪ introductions governed by protocols

Rules for:
Protocols define the format, order of
… specific messages sent
messages sent and received
… specific actions taken
when message received, among network entities, and
or other events actions taken on message
transmission, receipt
Introduction: 1-11
What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? GET
[Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction: 1-12
• Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data
between various devices in the network.

• These protocols define guidelines and conventions for transmitting and receiving data,
ensuring efficient and reliable data communication.

• It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is

being communicated.

• It permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and
structural differences.
 NETWORK EDGE
The network edge refers to the end devices or systems that interface directly with end users.
These include computers, smartphones, IoT devices, and access routers that connect to the core
internet infrastructure.
Function Explanation Example
Browsing a website, sending a
1. Data Generation End devices generate and consume data.
WhatsApp message, streaming a video.
Some processing happens at the edge Smart home devices processing voice
2. Data Processing
(edge computing). commands locally (e.g., Alexa).
3. Initiating Devices initiate requests to remote servers Your laptop sends a request to Google’s
Communication or peers. servers when you search something.
4. Access Control &
Handles user identity and access control. Logging into your email securely.
Authentication
5. Protocol Runs application layer protocols like HTTP, Web browser uses HTTP to
Implementation FTP, DNS, etc. communicate with a server.
6. Error Handling & Handles lost data or errors before passing it TCP retransmits lost packets if not
Retransmission further into the network. acknowledged by the receiver.
7. Interfacing with the Connects user device to the broader A home router connects your devices to
Internet network through routers or gateways. the ISP network.
Example Scenario: Browsing a Website

Step What Happens at the Edge

1. You enter a URL Your laptop (an edge device) initiates an HTTP request.
2. DNS lookup Your system queries a DNS server to resolve the domain name.
TCP/IP stack on your device handles the connection setup with the web
3. Connection to server
server.
4. Data request Your browser sends a request to fetch webpage content.
5. Data received Webpage is loaded and displayed to you.
 THE NETWORK CORE
The network core refers to the high-capacity routers,
switches, and fiber-optic links that form the
backbone of the internet. It interconnects multiple
network edges and handles data transmission over
long distances.

Key Features of the Network Core:

Feature Description
High-speed Core uses fiber optics with high bandwidth to
links transfer large volumes of data.
Packet Uses switching methods like packet
switching switching to efficiently route data.
No direct user End users don’t directly access core
interaction components.
Redundancy Designed to ensure reliable, uninterrupted
and reliability connectivity even if parts fail.
Functions of the Network Core:
Function Example
1. Routing Directs packets from source to destination using routers.
2. Packet Forwarding Forwards data packets hop-by-hop through intermediate nodes.
3. Traffic Management Balances loads and prevents congestion.
4. High-Speed Data Transport Transfers terabytes of data per second across continents.
5. Protocol Implementation Implements core-layer protocols like IP, BGP, etc.

Example Scenario:
Let’s say you open YouTube from India and the server is in the US:
Step What Happens in the Core
1 Your request travels from your device (edge) to your ISP’s network.
2 From there, it enters the network core (backbone).
3 Routers in the core route your request across continents.
4 YouTube’s server sends data back through the same or alternate path.
5 The data reaches your edge device via your ISP.
 Difference between Network Edge and Network Core

Feature Network Edge Network Core

Near the end users (homes, offices,
Location Deep inside the internet infrastructure
schools)
High-speed routing and data
Primary Role Access and delivery of data
transmission
Laptops, phones, home routers,
Examples of Devices Core routers, backbone switches
access points
Users Interacts directly with users No direct interaction with users
Protocols Used HTTP, FTP, TCP, DNS IP, BGP, MPLS, OSPF
Speed and Capacity Limited by local bandwidth High bandwidth (Gbps to Tbps links)
Managed by Tier-1 ISPs or backbone
Control Type Often controlled by users or local ISPs
providers
Email packets traveling across
Example Sending an email from your phone
continents
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is an independent, non-governmental

international body that develops and publishes international standards. An open system is a set of protocols
that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The
purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it
is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication between all types
of computer systems.
The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication
between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer. Within a single
machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the services
provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
Firewalls
CONNECTING DEVICES
 Today, however, Ethernet LANs use star topology. In a star topology, a repeater
is a multiport device, often called a hub, that can be used to serve as the
connecting point and at the same time function as a repeater.

Hub –
Hub has many ports; it is a basically multi-port repeater. It works at the physical layer of the OSI
model. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices. Figure 3.41 shows that when a packet from station A
to B arrives at the hub, the signal representing the frame is regenerated to remove any possible
corrupting noise, but the hub forwards the packet from all outgoing port to all stations in the
LAN. In other words, the frame is broadcast. All stations in the LAN receive the frame, but only
station B keeps it. The rest of the stations discard it. Figure 3.41 shows the role of a repeater or a
hub in a switched LAN.
Amplifiers-
It work in the physical layer of the OSI model. Amplifiers help boost the strength of these signals to
ensure they reach their destination accurately and efficiently.
Both Repeater and Amplifier are an
electronic devices. Repeater: Repeater
is used for regenerating the signal and The main difference between repeater and amplifier is
then transmit, if the previously transmit that repeater is used as a regenerate the signal and
signal is found weak. Repeater takes amplifier just increases the amplitude of the signal.
high input power and provides low
output power. The noise of signal can
also be reduced by regenerating the
signal. Repeater is used in both wired
and wireless communication.

Amplifier: Amplifier is used for

Noise
increases the amplitude or strength of
the signal, if the previously transmit
signal is found weak. It takes low input
power and provides high output
power. Amplifier is used in wireless
communication.
Bridges (Two-Layer switch) –
A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layers. As a physical-layer device, it
regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the MAC
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame. A bridge has filtering capability. It can
check the destination address of a frame and can decide from which outgoing port the frame
should be send out.

We can have a two-layer switch or a three-layer switch. A two-layer switch performs at the physical and data
link layer; it is a bridge with faster forwarding capability.
 Switch –

The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks
called subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets
between LAN segments based on MAC address.

Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is
examined first and some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices. Different
types of communication are supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast communication.

Features of Network Switches

•It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.

•It performs error checking before forwarding data.
•It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
•It operates in full duplex mode.
•It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.
•It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission
modes.
(Three-Layer switch) –
Gateways –
A gateway is a network node or device that connects two networks that use different
transmission protocols. Gateways play an important role in connecting two networks. It
works as the entry-exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the
networks must pass through the gateway. In this article, we are going to discuss all
important points related to Gateways. A network gateway is a device that connects different
networks by translating messages from one protocol into another protocol. The gateway
monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic. Gateways are also
known as protocol converters because they play an important role in converting protocols
supported by traffic on different networks.

How does Gateway Work?

Gateway has a simple working methodology of five steps:
Step 1: It gets data from the network
Step 2: It intercepts and analyzes the received data.
Step 3: It routes the data to the destination address.
Step 4: It converts the received data to make that compatible with the receiver network.
Step 5: It sends the final data inside the network.
Firewall-
A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which monitors
all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules accepts,
rejects, or drops that specific traffic.

•Accept: allow the traffic

•Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”
•Drop: block the traffic with no reply

A firewall is a type of network security device that filters incoming and outgoing network
traffic with security policies that have previously been set up inside an organization. A
firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal network from the open
Internet at its very basic level.
Working of Firewall

Firewall match the network traffic against the rule set defined in its table. Once the rule is
matched, associate action is applied to the network traffic. For example, Rules are defined as
any employee from Human Resources department cannot access the data from code server
and at the same time another rule is defined like system administrator can access the data
from both Human Resource and technical department. Rules can be defined on the firewall
based on the necessity and security policies of the organization. From the perspective of a
server, network traffic can be either outgoing or incoming.

Firewall maintains a distinct set of rules for both the cases. Mostly the outgoing traffic,
originated from the server itself, allowed to pass. Still, setting a rule on outgoing traffic is
always better in order to achieve more security and prevent unwanted communication.
Incoming traffic is treated differently. Most traffic which reaches on the firewall is one of these
three major protocols- TCP, UDP or ICMP.
Organization of the Layers
Figure gives an overall view of the
OSI layers, D7 means the data unit
at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at
layer 6, and so on. The process
starts at layer 7 (the application
layer), then moves from layer to
layer in descending, sequential
order. At each layer, a header, or
possibly a trailer, can be added to
the data unit. Commonly, the trailer
is added only at layer 2. When the
formatted data unit passes through
the physical layer (layer 1), it is
changed into an electromagnetic
signal and transported along a
physical link.
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer:

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
o Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.: The physical layer defines the type of transmission medium.
o Representation of bits. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
o Data rate/The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical layer.
o Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at
the bit level.
o. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
o Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-
way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex
(or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.
 Data Link Layer

It is responsible for node to node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.

• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.

• Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data are
produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary
to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
As the figure shows, communication at the
data link layer occurs between twoadjacent
nodes. To send data from A to F, three partial
deliveries are made. First, the data link layer at
A sends a frame to the data link layer at B (a
router). Second, the data link layer at B sends
a new frame to the data link layer at E. Finally,
the data link layer at E sends a new frame to
the data link layer at F. Note that the frames
that are exchanged between the three nodes
have different values in the headers. The
frame from A to B has B as the destination
address and A as the source address. The
frame from B to E has E as the destination
address and B as the source address. The
frame from E to F has F as the destination
address and E as the source address.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks
(links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network
(links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are
connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to
different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network
layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Figure 2.8 shows the relationship of the network layer to the data link
and transport layers.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an application
program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
Figure 2.10 shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network and session layers.
Session
Layer
Key Functions:

•Establish, maintain, and terminate sessions between two devices.

•Synchronization (checkpoints in data transfer so you can resume if interrupted).
•Dialog control (who sends/receives at a given time).

Example:
•You log into a website → the session layer keeps your connection active until you log out.
•In video conferencing, it maintains the session between your app and the other party.

Transport Layer “connection” vs. Session Layer “session”

•Transport Layer connection (TCP 3-way handshake)

• Purpose: To set up a reliable communication channel between two endpoints so data can be sent
and received correctly.
• Think of it as: Installing the phone line between two houses.
•Session Layer session
• Purpose: To organize and manage the ongoing conversation between two applications once the
transport connection is available.
• Think of it as: The rules of the conversation — who talks when, when to pause, how to resume if
interrupted.
Phone Call Example
•Transport Layer:
• Dials the number, gets the “Hello?” from the other side (3-way handshake).
• Ensures your voice packets arrive in the right order and intact.

•Session Layer:
• Handles the conversation flow — “Now you speak, now I speak,” “Let’s pause for a
moment,” “Let’s resume where we left off.”
Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
 Application Layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
Figure 2.14 shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the presentation layer. Of the
many application services available, the figure shows only three: X.400 (message-handling services),
X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and management (FTAM). The user in this example
employs X.400 to send an e-mail message.
The OSI model is called a reference model because it’s not an actual
implementation, it’s a theoretical framework that provides a reference (a standard
guideline) for how communication systems should be structured and how their
components should interact.
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Physical Addresses

Physical addresses can be either unicast (one single recipient), multicast (a group of recipients), or
broadcast (to be received by all systems in the network). Some networks support all three addresses.
For example, Ethernet supports the unicast physical addresses, the multicast addresses, and the
broadcast addresses. Some networks do not support the multicast or broadcast physical addresses.
Protocol / Network Type Unicast Multicast Broadcast
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) Yes Yes Yes
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) Yes Yes Yes
Token Ring Yes Sometimes Sometimes

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) Yes No No

HDLC Yes No No
Frame Relay Yes No No
ATM Yes No No
Example 2.5

Figure 2.17 shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs.
The computer with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send a packet to the computer with
logical address P and physical address 95. The sender encapsulates its data in a packet at the network layer
and adds two logical addresses (A and P). Note that in most protocols, the logical source address comes
before the logical destination address (contrary to the order of physical addresses). The network layer,
however, needs to find the physical address of the next hop before the packet can be delivered. The network
layer consults its routing table and finds the logical address of the next hop(router 1) to be F.

Now the network layer passes this address to the data link layer, which in turn, encapsulates the packet with
physical destination address 20 and physical source address 10. The frame is received by every device on
LAN 1, but is discarded by all except router 1, which finds that the destination physical address in the frame
matches with its own physical address. The router decapsulates the packet from the frame to read the logical
destination address P. Since the logical destination address does not match the router’s logical address, the
router knows that the packet needs to be forwarded. The router consults its routing table and ARP to find the
physical destination address of the next hop (router 2), creates a new frame, encapsulates the packet, and
sends it to router 2.
Note the physical addresses in the frame. The source physical address changes from 10 to 99. The
destination physical address changes from 20 (router 1 physical address) to 33 (router 2 physical address).
The logical source and destination addresses must remain the same; otherwise the packet will be lost. At
router 2 we have a similar scenario. The physical addresses are changed, and a new frame is sent to the
destination computer. When the frame reaches the destination, the packet is decapsulated. The destination
logical address P matches the logical address of the computer. The data are decapsulated from the packet
and delivered to the upper layer. Note that although physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
logical addresses remain the same from the source to destination.
Unicast, Multicast, and
Broadcast Addresses

The logical addresses can be

either unicast (one single
recipient), multicast (a group
of recipients), or broadcast
(all systems in the network).
Example 2.6

Figure 2.18 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this
time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with process j in
the receiving computer. Note that although both computers are using the same application, FTP, for example,
the port addresses are different because one is a client program and the other is a server program, as we will
see in Chapter 17. To show that data from process a need to be delivered to process j, and not k, the transport
layer encapsulates data from the application layer in a packet and adds two port addresses (a and j), source
and destination. The packet from the transport layer is then encapsulated in another packet at the network
layer with logical source and destination addresses (A and P). Finally, this packet is encapsulated in a frame
with the physical source and destination addresses of the next hop. We have not shown the physical
addresses because they change from hop to hop inside the cloud designated as the Internet. Note that
although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the
source to destination.
Packet Switching

The second solution to switching is called packet switching. The network layer in the
Internet today is a packet-switched network. In this type of network, a message from the
upper layer is divided into manageable packets and each packet is sent through the
network. The source of the message sends the packets one by one; the destination of the
message receives the packets one by one. The destination waits for all packets belonging
to the same message to arrive before delivering the message to the upper layer. The
connecting devices in a packet-switching network still need to decide how to route the
packets to the final destination.
When the network layer provides a connectionless service, each packet traveling in the
Internet is an independent entity; there is no relationship between packets belonging to
the same message. The switches in this type of network are called routers. A packet
belonging to a message may be followed by a packet belonging to the same message or
a different message. A packet may be followed by a packet coming from the same or
from a different source. Each packet is routed based on the information contained in its
header: source and destination address. The destination address defines where it should
go; the source address defines where it comes from. The router in this case routes the
packet based only on the destination address. The source address may be used to send
an error message to the source if the packet is discarded. Figure 4.4 shows the
forwarding process in a router in this case. We have used symbolic addresses such as A
and B.
Connection-Oriented Service
In a connection-oriented service, there is a relation between all packets belonging to a message. Before all
datagrams in a message can be sent, a virtual connection should be set up to define the path for the
datagrams. After connection setup, the datagrams can follow the same path. In this type of service, not only
must the packet contain the source and destination addresses, it must also contain a flow label, a virtual
circuit identifier that defines the virtual path the packet should follow.
Store-and-forward packet switching is a method used in network communication where a
packet-switching device, such as a router or switch, receives an entire data packet, stores it
temporarily, and then forwards it to the next node or destination in the network.

How Store-and-Forward Packet Switching Works:

[Link] Reception:
A network device (like a router) receives a packet in its entirety from an incoming link. This
includes the packet's header and payload (the actual data).

[Link] Checking:
Once the entire packet is received, the device performs error checking, usually using
techniques like Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to ensure that the packet hasn't been
corrupted during transmission. If errors are detected, the packet is typically discarded.

3. Temporary Storage:
The entire packet is temporarily stored in the device's memory (buffer). This storage is essential
because the device needs the full packet to perform tasks like error checking and determining
the appropriate outgoing link.
4. Packet Processing:
•The device examines the packet’s header to determine the destination address and any other
necessary routing information. Based on this information and the device's routing table, the best
path for the packet to follow is determined.

5. Forwarding:
•After processing, the device forwards the packet to the next hop in the network. This could be
another switch, router, or the final destination.

6. Buffer Management:
•If the next link is busy or congested, the packet may be held in the buffer until the link is available.
Efficient buffer management is crucial in preventing packet loss and ensuring smooth traffic flow.
Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched Networks

A packet starts in a host (the source), passes through a series of routers, and ends its journey in another host
(the destination). As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent node (host or router)
along this path, the packet suffers from several types of delays at each node along the path. The most
important of these delays are the nodal processing delay (processing delay), queuing delay, transmission
delay, and propagation delay; together, these delays accumulate to give a total nodal delay (total delay).
The performance of many Internet applications—such as search, Web browsing, email, maps, instant
messaging, and voice-over-IP—are greatly affected by network delays.
Delay, Loss and Throughput
 Delay, Loss and Throughput

1. Delay (Latency): Delay is the time taken for a data packet to travel from the sender to the
receiver.

Types of delay:

•Transmission delay – Time to push bits into the wire(link).

•Propagation delay – Time for bits to travel across the link.
•Processing delay – Time for routers to process the packet.
•Queuing delay – Time spent waiting in queue at routers.

Example:

If you send a message from your phone to a friend on WhatsApp, and it takes 150 milliseconds to
reach the server, that’s the delay.
2. Loss: Loss occurs when packets are dropped and do not reach the destination.

Causes:
•Network congestion
•Buffer overflow in routers
•Hardware or transmission errors

Example:
If you are in a Zoom call and the video freezes or audio drops for a second, it may be due to packet
loss during transmission.

3. Throughput: Throughput is the rate at which data is successfully transmitted over the network
(measured in bits per second).

Metric Definition Example Scenario

Message takes 200 ms to reach
Delay Time for data to travel from sender to receiver
server
Loss Packets that never reach destination Voice breaks during a call
Throughput Successful data transfer rate YouTube streaming at 5 Mbps
 Difference between Bandwidth, Transmission Rate and Througput

10-lane highway → max 10 cars/sec

Bandwidth Max capacity of the link

You send only 6 cars/sec

Transmission Rate Data pushed per second

Throughput Data that actually arrives Only 4 cars/sec reach destination

Analogy: Sending Water Through a Pipe

Imagine:
You pour water (data) into one end of a long pipe (network link). The water flows to the other end where
someone receives it.

Transmission Delay = Time to push all water into the pipe

Time taken to place all bits (like water droplets) onto the communication link.

Propagation Delay = Time for first drop to travel through the pipe
Time taken for a bit to travel from sender to receiver over the physical medium.

Queuing Delay = Time waiting in line before getting into the pipe
Time a packet waits in queue in a router/switch when multiple packets arrive.

Processing Delay = Processing delay is the time the guard (router) takes to inspect the jug before
giving you a go-ahead to pour.
Time a router takes to inspect a packet header and determine where to forward it.
Transmission Delay
The time it takes to push all the packet’s bits onto the link. It depends on the packet's size and the
transmission rate (bandwidth) of the link.

OR

Transmission delay can be expressed in either seconds or milliseconds.

OR
You are uploading a document to a cloud server. The document size is 5 MB. Your upload speed is 10 Mbps.
Calculate the transmission delay.
Propagation Delay

Time taken for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver over the medium. It depends on the
distance between the sender and receiver and the speed at which the signal travels through the
medium.

OR
Processing Delay

The time it takes for a router or switch to process the packet header, check for errors, determine
the destination, and decide on the appropriate outgoing link.

•Factors Influencing Processing Delay: The complexity of routing algorithms, the router’s
processing power, and the time spent in error checking.

Queuing Delay

The time a packet spends waiting in a queue before it can be transmitted. This occurs because
routers/switches may be processing multiple packets, and some packets may have to wait their
turn.

•Factors Influencing Queuing Delay: The level of congestion in the network, the queue length,
and the router's/switch's capacity to handle traffic.
Delay Type Unit
ms or s
Transmission Delay

ms or s
Propagation Delay

µs or ms
Processing Delay

Queuing Delay µs, ms, or s

Total Delay

The total delay in packet switching is the sum of processing, queuing, transmission, and propagation
delays. OR The total delay for a packet to travel from source to destination is the sum of all these
delays:
Throughput

In packet-switched networks it refers to the rate at which data is successfully transmitted from one
point to another within the network. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Throughput reflects the
actual amount of data that passes through the network, which can be lower than the network's
maximum capacity due to various factors.
Throughput

In packet-switched networks it refers to the rate at which data is successfully transmitted from one
point to another within the network. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Throughput reflects the
actual amount of data that passes through the network, which can be lower than the network's
maximum capacity due to various factors.
Link Transmission Rate (TR)
Link 1 200 kbps
Link 2 100 kbps
Link 3 150 kbps

•Source sends at 200 kbps (Link 1)

•At R1, the packet enters Link 2, which only supports 100 kbps → This becomes the bottleneck

•Then at R2, the packet enters Link 3, which supports 150 kbps, but Link 2 already slowed it down to 100 kbps

Therefore:

Throughput = Minimum of all link transmission rates A bottleneck is the part of a network that
has the lowest capacity (transmission
Throughput = min(200 kbps, 100 kbps, 150 kbps) rate) and slows down the flow of data
across the system.
Throughput = 100 kbps
 OR

Calculate the total delay

The total delay for a packet to travel from the source to the destination through one intermediate
router is 17.4 milliseconds. This total delay is a combination of processing delays, queuing
delays, transmission delays, and propagation delays.
Consider a link with a transmission rate of 100 Mbps. If the transmission delay for a packet is 4 milliseconds,
what is the size of the packet?
History of Computer Networking and Internet
 Type of Communication
Main Technologies /
Period Key Developments (Unicast / Multicast / Impact
Protocols
Broadcast)
Idea of packet switching, Packet Switching First proof that
1961– Mostly Unicast (one-to-one
ARPAnet launch, email concept, ARPAnet, computers can talk to
1972 between computers)
invention early Email each other remotely
Networks started
Public demo of ARPAnet, Ethernet, DECnet, Unicast & Broadcast
1972– linking together;
Ethernet invention, early SNA, early TCP/IP (Ethernet allowed sending to
1980 common rules
networking standards ideas all in a LAN)
proposed
Standard TCP/IP adoption, TCP/IP, DNS, SMTP, Unicast, Broadcast, Internet spread to
1980–
DNS creation, SMTP, FTP, FTP, TCP congestion Multicast (multicast added schools, research
1990
congestion control control for efficient group messaging) labs, and government
Ban on business use lifted, HTML, HTTP, Mosaic, Mainly Unicast (client-server Internet became
1990–
WWW creation, HTML/HTTP, Netscape, model for web), limited public, websites & e-
2000s
web browsers commercial ISPs multicast/broadcast in LANs commerce emerged
Unicast, Multicast,
High-speed broadband, Internet is global,
2005– SDN, Cloud services, Broadcast (e.g., live
4G/5G, WiFi, cloud mobile, and part of
Now Mobile Internet, IoT streaming, online gaming, IoT
computing, smartphones everyday life
devices)
 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
Full Form Open Systems Interconnection Model
Model
ISO (International Organization for DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects
Developed By
Standardization) Agency, USA)
Year of Development 1977–1984 1970s (ARPANET era), formalized in 1983
Number of Layers 7 layers 5 layers
Application, Presentation, Session, Application, Transport, Network, Data Link,
Layer Names
Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical Physical
Theoretical reference model (conceptual Practical implementation model (protocol-
Approach
framework) oriented)
Protocol Protocol-dependent (built around TCP/IP
Protocol-independent (just a guideline)
Dependency protocols)
Flexibility More rigid; strictly defined layers More flexible; layers can merge or overlap
Used mainly for understanding and
Usage Used in real-world Internet communication
teaching networking concepts

Session & Session and Presentation are separate Session and Presentation functions are merged
Presentation Layers layers into the Application layer