Tissues
What are tissues?
A group of cells which are similar in structure and/ or work together to achieve a particular function
form tissues.
These can be broadly divided into 2 types; Plant tissues and Animal tissues.
Dif b/w them. 1) supportive dead tissues 2) growth areas 3) cell wall
Plant Animal
Have more supportive tissues which are Most tissues are living and help in movement
generally dead
Growth is limited to certain regions (root tip, Growth is more uniform and generally stops
shoot tip) because of meristematic tissues after a certain age
Cells of tissue have a cell wall. Made up of cells that do not have a cell wall
What are the 2 types of Plant tissues?
Meristematic tissues, Permanent Tissues
What are meristematic tissues?
The growth of plants only takes place in specific areas where meristematic tissues are
present.
The meristematic tissues are also known as dividing tissues.
New cells produced by the meristem are initially like the meristem itself, but as they grow
and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as
components of other tissues.
They are classified into 3 types depending on the region of their presence.
o Apical meristem- Present at the growing tips of stems and roots & increases their
length.
o Lateral meristem- Also known as cambium, increase the girth of the stem and root.
o Intercalary meristem- Located near the node, only seen in some plants.
Characteristics-
Very active
Dense nucleus
Thin cytoplasm
No vacuoles
What are permanent tissues?
Meristematic tissues which take up a specific function and lose their ability to divide form
permanent tissues.
They take up a permanent shape, size and function by the process of differentiation. This
process leads to development of many different kinds of permanent tissues.
They can be broadly categorised into 2 types; Simple and Complex permanent tissues.
Differentiation- The process by which meristematic tissues turn into permanent tissues by taking up
a permanent shape, size and function.
Simple permanent tissues-
In a stem, a few layers of cells beneath the epidermis are generally simple permanent
tissues.
Simple permanent tissues are tissues made of 1 type of cells which look like eachother.
They are of 3 types- Parenchyma, Sclerenchyma and Collenchyma.
Parenchyma-
They are the most common type of simple permanent tissues.
Consist of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls.
They are living cells.
Cells are usually loosely aranged with large intercellular space.
Functions-
1. Generally stores food
2. In some situations, stores chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis. In this
case, called chlorenchyma.
3. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in Parenchyma to help the,
float. Such type of Parenchyma is called aerenchyma.
Collenchyma-
Found in leaf stalks below the epidermis.
Cells are living, elongated and irregularly thickened at the corners.
Very little intercellular space exists between cells.
Functions-
1. Responsible for flexibility of plants.
2. Allows bending of various parts of the plant like tendrils and stems of
climbers without breaking them.
3. Also provides mechanical support for the plant.
Sclerenchyma-
Functions-
1. Makes plant hard and stiff.
2. Provides strength to plant
Eg. Husk of coconut is made of sclerenchymatous tissue.
Cells of tissue are dead.
Long, narrow and have thickened walls due to lignin.
Often walls are so thick, there is no internal space inside cell.
Present in stems, around vascular bundles, in veins of leaves and in hard coverings of
seeds and nuts.
Epidermis-
Outer layer of cells acting as a covering on entire surface of a plant.
Usually made of a single layer.
It protects all the parts of the plant.
It is usually thicker in plants in dryer regions since protection against water loss is critical.
Epidermis cells on the aerial parts of the plant often secrete a waxy, water resistant layer on
their outer surface which aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and
invasion by parasitic fungi.
Since it has a protective role to play the cells of the epidermis tissue form a continous layer
without intercellular space.
Most epidermis cells are relatively flat. Often their side and outer walls are thicker than the
inner walls.
Epidermis on Leaf/Stomata- There are small pores on the epidermis of the leaf which are called
the Stomata. They are enclosed by 2 kidney shaped cells called guard cells. They are necessary
for exchanging gases with the atmosphere. Transpiration (lose of water in the form of water
vapour) also takes place through stomata.
Epidermis on root- Epidermis cells on the root whose function is water absorption, commonly
bear long hair-like parts that greatly increase the total absortive surface areas.
Epidermis on desert plants- have thick waxy coating of cutin (chemical substance with
waterproof quality) on its outer surface.
What changes does the plant’s protective tissues as the plant grows older?
When the plant grows older, a strip of secondary/ lateral meristem located in the cortex forms
layers of cells which constitute the cork. Cells of cork are dead and compactly arranged without
intercellular spacees. They also have a substance called suberin in their walls which makes them
impervious to gases and water.
Complex Permanent Tissue-
Are made up of more than 1 type of cells. These cells coordinate to perform a common
function.
Eg. Xylem and Phloem which are both conducting tissues and constitute a vascular
bundle.
Vascular bundles are a distinctive feature of complex plants, one which has made their
survival possible in a terrestrial environment.
Xylem-
Consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
Tracheids and vessels have thick walls and many are dead when they mature. They are
tubular structures. This allows them to transport water and minerals vertically.
The xylem parenchyma stores food.
Xylem fibres are mainly supportive in function.
Phloem-
Made up of 5 types of cells- sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and
phloem parenchyma.
Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls.
Phloem transports food from leaves to all parts of the plant.
All cells are living except phloem fibres.
Tissues
Plant Tissues Animal Tissues
Meristematic Permanent
Tissues Tissues
Simple Complex
Apical Lateral Intercalary
Permanent permanent
Meristem Meristem Meristem
Tissue Tissue
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem
Xylem Companion Phloem
Chlorenchyma Aerenchyma Xylem tracheids Xylem Vessels Xylem Fibres Sieve cells Sieve Tubes Phloem Fibres
Parenchyma Cells Parenchyma
Animal Tissues
Epithelial tissue
Always grows on some other types of tissue.
Cells of epithelium are set very close to each other and the tissue rests on a non-cellular
basement membrane.
Consists of single layer of cells.
Blood vessels are absent and non-nervous in nature.
It covers all the organs and lines the cavities of hollow organs like stomach.
It is primarily protective in function.
Epithelium tissues are classified as Squamous epithelium, Cubical epithelium, Columnar epithelium
and Ciliated epithelium.
Muscular Tissue
The cells of the connective tissue are widely spaced and embedded in an Movements are
brought about in our body with the help of muscular tissues.
They are long fibre-like cells called muscle fibres.
They are capable of contraction or relaxation.
Types of Muscular Tissue are Striated muscles, cardiac muscle fibres and Non-striated
muscles.
Striated Muscles/ Skeletal muscles
They are also called as voluntary muscles because these are under the control of one’s will.
Muscle fibres or cells are multinucleated and unbranched.
Each fibre is enclosed by thin membrane which is called as sarcolemma.
Cytoplasm is called as sarcoplasm.
These muscles get tired and need rest.
Cardiac Muscle Fibres
They are only involuntary muscles.
Only found in the walls of heart.
Their structure is in between the striated and non-striated muscles.
They are uninucleated and branched. Branches are united by intercalated disc.
In these muscles rhythmic contraction and relaxation occurs throughout the life.
Non-striated Muscles
They are involuntary muscles also called as smooth muscles.
These muscle fibres are uninucleated and spindle shaped.
They are not enclosed by membrane but many fibres are joined together in bundles.
Such muscles are found in the walls of stomach, intestine, urinary bladder, bronchi, iris of eye
etc.
Peristaltic movements in alimentary canal are brought about by smooth muscles.
Connective tissue
Provides structural framework.
Connects body parts.
Offers protection against infections.
Stores fats.
Occupies and fills spaces.
BLOOD
Blood is fluid connective tissue.
Blood flows and transports gases, digested food, hormones, and waste materials to different
parts of the body.
Blood provides protection.
Plasma -It forms 55% part of blood. It consistsof 90-91% of water, 7% of protein (Albumin, fibrinogen,
globulin), 0.9% of inorganic salt etc.
Corpuscles- Forms 45% part of blood.
RBCs- They are also called as erthyrocytes, containing red coloured respiratory pigment called
haemoglobin that helps in transportation of oxygen.
WBCs- They are also called as ‘Soldiers of the body’.
They are irregular, amoeboid, phagocyte cells that protect our body by engulfing bacterial &
other foreign particles.
They are of five types: Monocytes, Lymphocytes, Basophiles, Neutrophiles, Eosinophils.
Blood platelets or thrombocytes- They are spindle shaped cells which are involved in clotting of
blood.
Q. Describe the structural differences between tendons and ligaments. How does their structure
relate to their function?
Tendons are tough, non-elastic, fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones. Their
collagen fibres are arranged in parallel, making them very strong and able to bear tension.
Ligaments are elastic tissues that connect bones to other bones. Their fibres are arranged in
a criss-cross manner, which gives them strength as well as flexibility.
Thus, the structure of tendons helps in transferring the pull of muscles to bones, while the
structure of ligaments helps in stabilising joints and allowing movement.
What are the key types of cartilage, and where are they found in the human body?
There are three main types of cartilage in the human body:
1. Hyaline cartilage: Smooth and flexible; found at the ends of long bones, nose, trachea, and
larynx.
2. Elastic cartilage: More flexible due to elastic fibres; found in the external ear (pinna) and
epiglottis.
3. Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage): Tough and dense; found in intervertebral discs and pubic
symphysis.
Aerolar Tissue
It is the most distributed connective tissue in the body. This tissue fills spaces inside organs and is
found between the skin & muscles, around blood vessels, nerves and in the bone marrow.
Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is made up of many round and oval adipocytes filled with fat globules. Excess
nutrients are stored as fat in this tissue. It helps in temperature regulation. Adipose tissue is
commonly found beneath the skin and around internal organs like the kidneys.
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous Tissue
They are highly specialized tissue due to which the animals are able to perceive and respond to the
stimuli.
Their functional unit is called as nerve cell or neuron.
Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
Longest cell in body.
Cell body is called cyton which is covered by plasma membrane.
Q. Describe the structure and functions of the central nervous system (CNS).
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is protected by the skull and controls all voluntary actions, such as movement,
speech, and thinking, as well as involuntary actions, like heartbeat and breathing.
The spinal cord runs inside the backbone and carries messages between the brain and the
rest of the body. It also controls reflex actions.
Thus, the CNS acts as the control centre of the body, processing information and coordinating all
activities.