SYNTAX
2025
Do Manh Cuong
Unit 1 - INTRODUCTION
I. General
II. Sentence structure:
Constituents
III. Constituent tests
Summary
LINGUISTICS
Phonetics &
Morphology Syntax Semantics
Phonology
a branch of Linguistics studying structures at the phrase /
sentence levels
the study of how words combine to form phrases, clauses
& sentences
Example
=> how a sentence is formed
subject (NP) + predicate (VP)
=> sentence formation rule (illustrated by a tree diagram)
S
NP VP
E.g. My best friend / likes camping in the forest.
1. What is a constituent?
= a linguistic unit which can be
a word or a group of words functioning
as a single unit within a hierarchical
structure
❑ A sentence is a hierarchical structure
>
❑ Each constituent has a particular function in a
sentence
> Subject / predicate
N.B.1
=> A word sequence can be a PHRASE
(= constituent) in one sentence, but
NOT in another.
Examples:
(a) Old Sam (died last week).
> OLD SAM = NP (subject)
>
(b) Although he was old, Sam could lift weights.
> old + Sam >
N.B.2
❑ A PHRASE is also a hierarchical structure
> divided into parts (= constituents)
E.g.
❑ Each constituent has a particular function in a
phrase
> Modifier + Head word (Name)
NOTE: The first few units will focus more on
Sentence structure in general. Phrases will be
discussed later.
N.B.3_ Optional vs Obligatory constituents
E.g.1 Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
> Is the sentence well-formed without
“beside a stream”?
>
E.g.2 Old Sam went to church.
> Is the sentence well-formed without
“to church”?
>
2. Phrase marker
= A syntactic tree diagram that
illustrates or represents the
constituent structure of a sentence
3. Immediate constituents and
Domination (p.17)
NODE = any point in a phrase marker bearing
a label (= name)
=>
=> The NODE S
dominates all these:
=> A node immediately dominates only the
constituents right below it.
i.e. there are no intervening elements between the
Node and its ICs (= immediate constituenst).
=> The NODE S
immediately dominates
=>
1. Omission
Which structure is a well-formed sentence?
a) Old Sam sunbathed beside a
b) Old Sam sunbathed beside
c) Old Sam sunbathed
d) Old Sam
e) Old
i.e. If a word sequence can be omitted while
leaving a well-formed sentence, it is a
constituent in the structure of that sentence.
Which structure is a well-formed sentence?
a) * Old Sam sunbathed beside a
b) * Old Sam sunbathed beside
c) Old Sam sunbathed ✓
d) * Old Sam
e) * Old
In (a), if “stream” is removed,
How about (b), (d), and (e)?
2. Replacement by a single word
Which single word can replace each underlined
word sequence?
a) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
b) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
c) I sunbathed beside a stream, and Old Sam
sunbathed beside a stream, too.
If a word sequence can be replaced by a
single word,
3. Question test
Make questions for the underlined words.
a) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
b) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
c) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
=> The answer fragments to WH-questions
are phrases / constituents.
Which phrase marker is right?
(a) (b)
=> Can you make a WH-question for “beside a”
in (a)?
=> Can you make a WH-question for “a stream”
in (b)?
4. Movement
Can you move the underlined word sequence to
another position to form a new structure?
a) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
b) Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream.
If a word sequence can be moved to
another position (usually fronting), it is a
phrase/constituent in the structure of a
sentence.
5. Sense test
Explain the meaning of each underlined word sequence.
a) Alice asked how old Sam was.
b) Alice asked how old Sam was.
c) Alice asked how old Sam was.
A phrase / constituent has sense, and
thus can become an answer to a WH-
question (cf. [3] Question test)
SUMMARY
1. Constituent (optional vs obligatory)
2. Phrase marker: Node, Dominate
3. Immediate constituent
4. Constituent tests
5. Structural ambiguity
1. Which of these are constituents of A? For each case of a
constituent, what is the mother?
A (a) c + d
(b) g + h
(c) a + b + c
B C (d) a + b + c + d
(e) c + d + e + f
(f) D + E
D E F
(g) E + C
(h) F + g + h
a b c d e f g h
2. What are the immediate constituents of (a) A, (b) B, (c) C?
3. What do the following immediately dominate? (a) A; (b) F
4. What are the sisters of g?
5. What is the mother of E?
Draw phrase markers for the following:
1. two rather dubious jokes
> rather dubious = phrase
2. men from the ministry
> from the ministry // the ministry = phrases
(p.19)
Explain the following ambiguous sentences. Identify the
sources of ambiguity by underlining constituents.
1. This story shows what evil men can do.
2. They only sell rotten fruit and vegetables.
3. More interesting meals would have been welcome.
4. We need an agreement between workers on
overtime.
5. Bill asked the man who he had seen.
(p.23)