CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE: CELL

A cell is fundamental and structural unit of life. It is the smallest unit of life capable of all the
living functions. Most of the cells are very small in size while some cells can be very large.
Some cells may exist as independent units of life like amoeba, euglena etc. In unicellular
organisms, all the basic functions of living being is performed by one cell. In multi cellular
animals, the different functions are performed by different organs i.e. there is division of labor.

An English scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered the cell in 1665 while examining thin
sections of cork cells under simple microscope. He observed a mass of empty hexagonal
chambers like honeycomb and called them cells. Leeuwenhoek in 1674 with improved
microscope discovered the free living cell in the pond water.

The cell theory, that all plants and animals are composed of cells and cell is the basic unit
of life was presented by two biologists Schleiden and Schwann in 1838-39. The cell theory was
further expanded by Virchow in 1855 by suggesting that all cells arise from pre existing cells.

CELL STRUCTURE:
Structurally the cell is formed of three parts:
A. Plasma Membrane
B. Cytoplasm
C. Nucleus

Plant Cell
 Animal Cell

A. PLASMA MEMBRANE: Each cell is bounded by an extremely delicate, thin, living

membrane called plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is made up of two layers of
lipid (fat) molecules with protein molecules embedded between them. It is the selectively
permeable membrane which allows the flow of only some substance into the cell and out of
the cell. It also gives shape and rigidity to the cell.
Note: Viruses do not have any membranes.

Functions of Cell Membrane:

1. It gives definite shape to the cell.
2. It protects the internal structure of the cell from external environment.
3. It regulates entry and exit of the substances in and out of the cell.

CELL WALL: Plants cell have additional protective wall outside the plasma membrane called
the cell wall. The cell wall is relatively thick and non living which is made up of cellulose.
Cellulose is a complex substance which provides structural strength to plants. The cell wall is
also permeable. The functions of cell wall are:
1. It determines the shape of the plant cell.
2. It protects the internal structure and plasma membrane of the plant cell.
3. It helps in transport of various substances in and out of the cell.
4. It does not allow too much of water to come in so that cytoplasm does not become too
dilute.
5. It also permits the cells of the plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute external
media without bursting.

NOTE: When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is shrinkage of the contents
of the cell away from the cell wall. This is called Plasmolysis.

Protoplasm: All the components of a cell including cell membrane are called protoplasm.
B. CYTOPLASM: The colorless, jellylike, viscous substance which surrounds the nucleus is
called cytoplasm. It is formed of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lips and some inorganic
substances. There are many small organelles inside the cytoplasm. These are called as
cytoplasmic organelles or cell organelles. Each of the cell organelles performs a specific
function or chemical activity for the cell. Some of the cell organelles are given below:

1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER): The ER is the network of membrane bound tubes

and sheets running through the cytoplasm. Some parts are connected to the nuclear
membrane while others are connected to the cell membrane. The ER is of two types:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER). The
RER is rough because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surfaces. The
ribosomes are the sites of protein manufacture. The SER helps in the manufacturing of fat
molecules and lipids important for cell function. The important functions of ER are given
below:
 ER is associated with the synthesis, storage and transport of metabolic products.
 It helps in the formation of cell plate and nuclear membrane during cell division.
 RER is associated with the synthesis of proteins.
 SER secretes lipids which along with proteins constitute cell membrane by a
process called membrane biogenesis.
 SER plays important role in detoxifying poisons and drugs.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are small round bodies found either in free state in cytoplasm or
attached to the surface of ER. They are made up of ribonucleic acids and proteins. The
main function of ribosomes is synthesis of proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

2. MITOCHONDRIA: It is small, rod shaped organelles. Each mitochondrion is bounded

by two membranes: outer and inner. The outer membrane is smooth and inner membrane
is pushed inwards at intervals forming crests called cristae. The cristae lie in a substance
called matrix. Mitochondria possess enzymes necessary for oxidation of carbohydrates.
This process releases energy to perform various functions of the cell. Excess energy is
stored in the form of ATP. That’s why it is called as power house of the cell. It contains
its own ribosomes and DNA.
 Mitochondria

3. GOLGI APPARATUS OR GOLGI BODY: It consists of membrane bound vesicles

arranged parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have
connections with the membranes of ER. The functions of Golgi bodies are:
 They store, modify, package and condense the proteins synthesized in
ribosomes.
 They set aside digestive enzymes in tiny membrane bound vesicles which
became lysosomes.
 They add some sugars to proteins and synthesis some polysaccharides for the
cell membrane.

Golgi complex

4. LYSOSOMES: These are small saclike, single membrane bound vesicles contain
enzymes.
mes. These enzymes are synthesized in the RER which are brought to the Golgi
apparatus. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi complex. The functions of Lysosomes are:
 They help in breaking do down large molecules of the cell.
 They protect the cell from bacteria and viruses.
 Sometime lysosomes act on their own cellular organelles and digest them. This
results in the cell death. Hence lysosomes are also called as suicide bags of the
cell.

5. PLASTIDS: Plastids are double membrane bound organelles which are found only in
plant cells. A plastid shows two distinct regions
regions: grana and stroma.. Grana are stacks of
flattened sacs containing chlorophyll molecules. The homogenous matrix in which grana
 are embedded is known as stroma. Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
 Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store food in the form of starch, proteins
and lipids.
 Chloroplasts are green plastids which contain chlorophyll.
 Chromoplasts are variously colored plastids present in flowers and fruits.

6. VACUOLES: Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid and liquid contents. Vacuoles are small
in animal cell while vacuoles are large in plant cells. Some of the plant cell contains
vacuoles occupying 90% of the cell volume. In plant cell vacuoles are full of cell sap and
provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Many substances like amino acids, sugars and
proteins are stored in vacuoles. The functions of the vacuoles are:
 In animals, vacuoles help in the maintenance of water balance.
 They help in maintaining the internal pressure of the cell.
 They store various substance including waste products.

C. NUCLEUS: The nucleus is a dense, spherical organelle. The nucleus has a double
layered covering called nuclear membrane which separates it from the surrounding cytoplasm.
The nuclear membrane has pores to allow the transport of materials between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. A colorless dense sap is present inside the nuclear membrane known as nuclear sap or
nucleoplasm.
Inside the nucleoplasm is a tangled mass of thread like structures called chromatin. Chromatin is
made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins. When a cell starts to divide, the tangled
mass of chromatin condense into rod like bodies called chromosomes. The DNA contains genes
which carry information from one generation to next generation. Genes controls the production
of enzymes for various metabolic activities of the cell. Genes also orders the cell to perform cell
division, cell communication etc.
The number of chromosomes within the nucleus is constant in all individual of a given species.
Human being contains 46 chromosomes.

Nucleus

NUCLEOLUS: The nucleolus is an organelle inside the nucleus. This organelle contains DNA
which synthesizes RNA. RNA combines with proteins to form ribosomes. It also plays the
important role in cell division.
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES: The cells can be of two types: Prokaryotes and
Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes include bacteria and blue green algae and all other living organisms are
eukaryotes.

Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:

[Link] Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

1. These cells lacks true nucleus. DNA lies These cells have true nucleus bound by
in the cytoplasm. These cells do not have nuclear membrane which contains DNA.
chromosomes, nucleolus and nuclear These cells have nucleolus and nuclear
membrane. Nucleoplasm is membrane. The nucleoplasm is distinct.
undifferentiated from cytoplasm.
2. These cells do not contain membrane These cells contain membrane bound cell
bound cell organelles. organelles.
3. These cells have small ribosomes and These cells have bigger ribosomes which
randomly scattered in cytoplasm. can be free or attached to the ER.
4. These cells divide by simple fission (No These cells divide by mitosis or meiosis.
mitosis or meiosis).
5. Small cell size Bigger cell size.
6. Example: Bacteria and Blue Green Algae Example: All other organisms.

Difference between Plant Cells and Animal Cells:

[Link] PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

1. Plant cells are larger than animal cells. Animal cells are generally small in size.
2. Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.
3. Plastids are present in plant cells. Plastids are absent in animal cells.
4. Vacuoles are present in abundance. They Vacuoles are less in number and smaller in
are larger in size. size.
5. Plant cells usually have a regular shape. Animal cells are usually irregular in shape.

DIFFUSION: The movement of substance from high concentration region to low concentration
region is known as diffusion. Diffusion takes place in solids, liquids and gases. Gases can mix up
perfectly with each other and become uniform. In liquids, diffusion is slower than in gases. In
solids, diffusion occurs at very slow rate.
During diffusion the molecules are free to move in all directions. But the net movement of
molecules is from the region of high concentration to region of low concentration till they are
uniformly distributed throughout the available space. Examples: Diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide inside and outside the cell.

OSMOSIS: Diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis. In osmosis,
the net movement of water is from high concentration region to region of low concentration.
Transport of water between cells and their environment:
When animal cell or plant cell is placed in the sugar solution or salt solution, osmosis will takes
place. The movement of water molecules will depend on the concentration of the surrounding
medium.

Case1. In hypotonic solution (dilute solution), the cell will gain water by osmosis. There is a
higher water concentration outside the cell and lower concentration inside the cell. Water
molecules pass in both directions across the cell membrane. But the net movement of water is
into the cell, due to which the cell swells up. This is called endosmosis.

Case 2: When the cell is placed in isotonic solution, there will be no net movement of water
across the cell membrane. During the process, the amount coming out and going inside the cell is
same. Hence cell remains the same size.

Case3: When the cell is placed in the hypertonic solution, the water will diffuse out of the cell by
osmosis. This is because the concentration of water inside the cell is more than that of outside the
cell. Although water molecules pass the cell membrane in both directions, more water goes out
of the cell than enters it. As a result, the cell will shrink. This process is called exosmosis. If
exosmosis continues in a plant cell, the cytoplasm will appear shrunken. This is called
Plasmolysis.

Example of Osmosis: Entry of water into root hairs and movement of water within the plant
body, opening and closing of stomata in leaves