CHAPTER 3

HYDROMETRIC MEASUREMENT
 CHAPTER 3
3. Hydrometric Measurement
3.1. Direct measurement techniques
✓ Area-velocity method,
✓ Moving Boat method,
✓ Dilution or chemical method,
✓ Electromagnetic method, and
✓ Ultrasonic method.
3.2. Indirect measurement techniques
✓Slope-Area method,
✓Flow measuring structures.
 Hydrometric Measurement

Introduction
➢ The techniques and research into the
measurement of streamflow are referred to as
hydrometry.
➢ Hydrometry is the area of hydrology that has
probably seen the greatest changes in the past
10–15 years, driven by an integration of
advanced electronic instrumentation into
environmental science.
➢ However, the fundamental principles of
streamflow measurement remain the same.
 Hydrometric Measurement

Introduction
➢ Streamflow is measured as the amount of
water passing through a specific section of a
river or stream over a fixed period of time.
➢ It is measured in the unit of discharge, i.e.,
volume per unit time (e.g., 3
𝑚 /𝑠 , also
3
known as cumec, 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠).
➢ The measurement of discharge forms an
important branch of Hydrometry, the
science and practice of water management.
 Hydrometric Measurement
Introduction

➢ It is a product of the area of cross section and the velocity of flow.

➢ A natural stream channel can have any irregular shape for which any
standard formula cannot be used to compute the area.
➢ Similarly, there is no fixed velocity which varies in both width and
depth in a stream section.
➢ Thus the discharge can be given by
3 −1
𝑄 = ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑑𝐴 (𝐿 𝑇 ) (4.1)
Broad Categories of Streamflow Measurement Techniques

Area Velocity,

Moving Boat ,

Direct
Dilution Technique,
Determination
Electromagnetic,
And
Broad Categories of
Streamflow Measurement
Techniques Ultrasonic

Hydraulic Structures
Indirect And
Determination
Slope Area Method.
 Broad Categories of Streamflow Measurement Techniques

• Except for the tracer-dilution technique, in which the equation of

the mass rate of flow is used, the other discharge methods are based
on eq. (4.1).
• The current meter and float methods perform algebraic integration
(summation).
• The stream section is divided into a number of subsections.
• The depth and velocity measurements are arranged to determine an
average velocity for each subsection.
• The discharge is computed by
𝑄 = ∑ 𝑎𝑣 (𝐿 𝑇 ) 3 −1 (4.2)
Where : 𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Measurements using ultrasonic and electromagnetic methods give the
average velocity for the entire stream section.
• Then the discharge is obtained by multiplying the average velocity by
the entire area of cross section.
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Computation of Discharge
➢ The velocity-area method has been used for many decades, with the aid of a handheld mechanical current meter.
➢ Current meters come in different sizes, depending on the size of the river.
➢ They work by measuring the rotations of propellers and calculate the speed (velocity) of the water.
➢ The flow is obtained by measuring the velocity for several vertical subsections across the river and calculating the flow
in each.
➢ The overall flow is the combined flow from each of these subsections.

➢ Measurements of velocity and depth, made at a

number of locations across a stream channel, are
used to compute discharge by summing up the
product of mean velocity and area of cross section of
the segment between successive locations.
➢ Usually, between 20 and 30 verticals of equidistant or
variable spacings are used to divide a stream width.
➢ These spacings should be arranged so that no
segment contains more than 10% of the total flow.
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Computation of Discharge
➢ Depending on the procedure used to obtain the multiplication of velocity and area of
various elements constituting the channel section, methods are known as :

1. Mid-section,
2. Mean-section,
Methods are known

3. Velocity-depth integration, and ,

as

(Individual Assignment)

4. velocity- contour methods of discharge

computation.
(Individual Assignment)

➢ The first two methods are arithmetic summation procedures and the last two are graphic
methods.
➢ Midsection is a preferred method.
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Mid-section method
• In the mid-section method of computation it is assumed that the
velocity sampled at each vertical represents the mean velocity in a segment.
• In this method it is assumed that the velocity at each vertical represents a mean
velocity for a section that extends half the distance into the preceding and
following segments, as shown in Figure.

𝑊2 + 𝑊3
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑑3
2
𝑊2 + 𝑊3
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑉ത 𝑑3
2
Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)
Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

EXAMPLE 1 The data for a stream gaging station are given as follows:

Distance from left water 0 1 3 5 7 9 10

edge (m)
Depth (m) 0 1 2 3 2 1 0
Average velocity (m/s) - 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0

Compute the discharge in the stream. (Mid-section method)

Solution First, the average width and then the cross-sectional area
of flow of each subsection are computed using Equation, The
average width for the first section. 𝑊1 . is
Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

The total discharge is calculated using Equation or summing the subsection

discharges. 𝑄 = 6.2 𝑚3 /𝑠
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Example 2 The following data were collected at a gauging site.

Estimate the discharge in the stream using (Mid-section method)
Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)
 Solution
The discharge is calculated
𝑉0.2𝐷 +𝑉0.8𝐷
as follows 𝑉ത = 𝞓𝑄𝑖 = 𝞓𝐴𝐼 ∗ 𝞓𝑉𝑖
2

So, the total discharge in the stream is this 13.29-meter cube per second
Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Solution: The average width for the different sections can

be evaluated as follows, For the first and last sections,

For the rest of the sections, Given that the velocity is measured at
0.6 depth, thereby the measured velocity is the average velocity at
that particular depth.
Solution
The discharge is calculated using the mid-section method as
follows, 𝑚
𝑉=0.45𝑁𝑠 + 0.2 𝞓𝑄𝑖 = 𝞓𝐴𝐼 ∗ 𝞓𝑉𝑖
𝑠
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Mean-section method
• The segment area (subsection) extends from vertical to vertical as shown in
Figure
𝑑3 + 𝑑4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 − 4 = 𝑊3
2
ഥ3 +𝑉
𝑉 ഥ4 𝑑3 +𝑑4
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 − 4 = 𝑊3
2 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ
ഥ𝑥 +𝑉
𝑉 ഥ𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 +𝑑𝑥+1
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑊𝑥 3 −1
[𝐿 𝑇 ]
2 2

Figure Subsection in the

mean-section method.
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Mean-section method :Example Compute the discharge by

midsection method for the following measurement data.
The current-meter rating is given by v = 0.1 + 2.2N, where
v is velocity in ft/sec and N is the number of revolutions per
second.
 Area Velocity Method (Computation of current meter measurements)

Mean-section method: Solution

 Moving-Boat Method
➢ Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers is very time-
consuming by the standard current meter even when the
flow is low or moderate.
➢ During high flow, it is impossible to use the standard
current meter technique as it is difficult to keep the boat
stationary.
➢ In such cases, the moving-boat method may be extremely
effective.
✓ A special current meter is towed in a boat at a specific
velocity, right angle to streamflow.
✓ An echo-depth recorder is used to measure the depth at
various points where velocity is measured.
 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖+1
𝑞𝑖 = (∆𝑄𝑖 ) = 𝑊𝑖+1 𝑉𝑓
2
𝑑𝑖 +𝑑𝑖+1 2
𝑞𝑖 = ∆𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝞱𝐶𝑜𝑠𝞱∆t
2

𝑄 = ෍ 𝑞𝑖 = ෍ ∆𝑄𝑖
 Solution
The average velocity at a vertical is evaluated using the following equation,
∇𝑄𝐼 = ∇𝐴𝑖 ∗ 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.95 ∗ (𝑉𝑅 sin 𝜃)

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
 Dilution Technique

• This technique comprises the injection of a tracer

and the subsequent recovery, and analysis of the
sample from a stream at a point downstream.
• So, three things are important; one is the tracer.
• In tracer, there are two sections, where inject it that
the section; and then at some downstream section we
take the sample, and evaluate it.
 Dilution Technique

Tracer
three main categories

(a) Chemicals (sodium chloride, sodium

dichromate)

(b) Fluorescent dyes (rhodamine- WT, sulpho-

rhodamine)
(
c) Radioactive materials(bromine-82, sodium-
22,iodine-132)
• And it is basically which one to utilize, it depends on how much accuracy we finally
get.
• For example, when we use the common salt, we get about 1 percent accuracy; we can
measure it at the downstream location.
 Dilution Technique
• Stream discharge is determined on the basis of how much of the tracer is
diluted by the flowing water.
Suitable tracers have the following characteristics:
1. They readily dissolve in water at ordinary temperatures
2. They are absent in the stream or present at very low concentrations
3. They are not decomposed in the stream and is not retained or
absorbed in significant quantity by plants, sediments, or other
organisms
4. They can be detected in extremely low concentrations
5. They are harmless to the environment.
6. It should be cost-effective.
 Dilution Technique
Length of reach
These are different conditions when you select the tracer and the second
thing that we select is the length of the reach.
➢ The length of the reach between the dosing section (section 1) and
sampling section (section) needs to be adequate for the complete
mixing of the tracer with the flow.
➢ The length depends on the discharge, geometry of the channel
cross-section, and turbulence level of the flow.
 Dilution Technique

• Tracer dilution techniques are more difficult to use than current

meter techniques and under most conditions, the results are less
reliable.
• The dilution method should only be used when conditions are
unfavorable for current meter discharge measurement, such as in
rough channels that exhibit highly turbulent flow.
• This method is best suited for turbulent waters as the turbulence
helps in thorough mixing of the chemical; this is a costly process.
• Conservation of mass is the basis for the determination of
stream discharge in the tracer dilution method.
 Dilution Technique
Theory of the Tracer Dilution Method
• In tracer dilution methods, a tracer is injected into a stream and subject to
dilution by the stream.
• The stream discharge can be determined from the rate of injection, the
concentration of the tracer in the injection solution, and the downstream
concentrations. primary methods for

the constant rate

There are two

determination
injection method and
discharge

the sudden injection

method
 Dilution Technique

Constant Rate Injection Method

• In this method, the tracer solution is
introduced into the stream (at section 1) at a
constant rate over a period of time, and the
concentration of tracer at a downstream
location (section 2) rises slowly and reaches a
constant value as shown in fig 1.
• The downstream sampling section was chosen
sufficiently far downstream for far
downstream, in such a way that the natural
process of mixing to have the spread the tracer
uniformly across this across the section.
 Dilution Technique
Constant Rate Injection Method
• The streamflow is considered to be steady and
by continuity of the tracer material the
discharge is evaluated as,

𝑄𝑡 𝐶1 + 𝑄𝐶0 = (𝑄 + 𝑄𝑡 )𝐶2

𝑄𝑡 (𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ൯
𝑄=
(𝐶 2 − 𝐶0 ൯
 Dilution Technique
Constant Rate Injection Method: Example

• A 30 g/l solution of a fluorescent tracer was discharged

into a stream at a constant rate of 15 cm3/s. The
background concentration of the dye in the stream water
was found to be zero. At a downstream section
sufficiently far away, the dye was found to reach an
equilibrium concentration of 7 parts per billion.
Estimate the stream discharge.
 Dilution Technique
Constant Rate Injection Method: Solution
 Dilution Technique

Sudden Injection Method

• The instantaneous injection of a slug of tracer solution is the basis of
the sudden injection method.
• The determination of the total mass of tracer at a sampling cross
section determines, indirectly, the stream discharge.
• Also, if the cross sectional area of the stream or conduit is constant,
the sudden injection method may also be used to determine the
velocity of flow.
Dilution Technique
 Dilution Technique
Sudden Injection Method
 Dilution Technique
Sudden Injection Method
• The streamflow is considered to be steady and by
continuity of the tracer material the discharge is
evaluated as
 Dilution Technique
Sudden Injection Method

Figure . Typical concentration curve with sudden tracer

injection.
 Dilution Technique
Sudden Injection Method Example:
The sudden dilution technique is used to measure the discharge at a
stream. A fluorescent dye was suddenly injected at a station upstream at
9 a.m. The weight of injected dye was 300 N and the base concentration
of the dye in the stream was zero. The data collected at a station
downstream are given in the following table. Estimate the discharge in
the stream.
 Dilution Technique
Sudden Injection Method Solution
 Electromagnetic Method
➢This method is based on Faraday’s principle that an electromagnetic
force is induced in the water (conductor) when it cuts a normal
magnetic field.
➢This method involves the use of sophisticated and expensive
instruments and has been successfully implemented in the field for
discharge measurement.

Installation and Operation

➢To produce a controlled vertical magnetic field, large coils are buried at
the bottom of the channel that carries a current I.
➢The voltage produced due to the flow in the channel is measured by the
electrodes provided at the sides of the channel section.
 Electromagnetic Method
➢ The signal output E (in the order of millivolt) and the current in the coil (I) can be
related to discharge (Q) as follows

Field Applications:
➢ This method is especially suited for field situations where the cross-
sectional properties can change with time due to weed growth,
sedimentation, etc.
➢ Another application is in tidal channels where the flow undergoes rapid
changes both in magnitude as well as in direction.
 Ultrasonic Method
➢ This method is based on the principle of the Area-Velocity method.
➢ Here, velocity is measured using ultrasonic signals instead of a current meter.
➢ It has several advantages over other methods, and some disadvantages as well.
Advantages of field application
✓ It is a rapid method and provides estimates of flow with higher accuracy.
✓ Once installation is complete, it can be suitable for automatically gauging.
✓ Effectively used in tidal rivers as it can handle the rapid change in magnitude and
direction.
✓ The cost required for installation is independent of the size of the river.
Disadvantage
➢ The accuracy of such systems is limited by factors like unstable cross-section,
fluctuating weed growth, high loads of suspended solids to name a few, as they
affect the signal velocity and averaging of flow velocity.
 Ultrasonic Method
➢ Let us consider a channel carrying a flow fixed between two (trans) transducers A and B at
the same height above the bed of the channel

t t t
• The 1 and 2 are the two times; 1 is the time elapsed between the signals sent by A and
received by B. So if one signal comes from the A and it is received by the B; so, this time gap is
t
we said 1.

t
• And 2 is just the reverse when the signal is sent by B, and it is received by A.

• While, these two times are different, this is because of the flow velocity that is vp; the
component of the flow velocity in the sound part that is vcos θ.
 Ultrasonic Method
➢ Then, we will get an expression that comes as
 Ultrasonic Method
Example
➢ The Ultrasonic Method is used to measure the velocity of a gauging site. The
following observations are made at the site. Evaluate the velocity at the site.
• Time elapsed between the signal sent by the first transducer to the second
transducer 5 seconds.
• Time elapsed between the signal sent by the second transducer to the first
transducer 6 seconds.
➢ • The distance between the two transducers is 100 m along the sound path and the
angle of the flow direction with the sound path is 45˚.
 Ultrasonic Method
Solution
 Summary
➢ In summary, we learned the following points from this lecture:
➢ Discharge or streamflow is the volume rate of flow of water in a stream expressed
as cubic feet per second or cubic meters per second.
✓ Different direct and indirect methods are used for streamflow measurement.
✓ Two commonly used techniques namely Area-Velocity Method and Moving-Boat
Method are discussed in this lecture.
✓ Both the methods include evaluation of the cross-sectional area of the river and the
average velocity at a particular section to finally estimate the total discharge at that
vertical section.
✓ During high flow, it is impossible to use the standard techniques for streamflow
measurement as it is difficult to keep the boat stationary, in such cases the Moving-
Boat Method is used.
 Summary
• And also we have discussed other direct streamflow measurement techniques like dilution
technique, an electromagnetic method, an ultrasonic method.
• In the dilution technique, a tracer is injected upstream and the subsequent recovery and
analysis of samples from the stream are carried out at a point downstream.
• In an electromagnetic method, the electromagnetic force is induced in the water
(conductor) when it cuts a normal magnetic field.
• The ultrasonic method is based on the principle of the Area-Velocity method where the
velocity is measured using ultrasonic signals.
• Generally, Except for the tracer-dilution technique, in which the equation of the mass
rate of flow is used, the other discharge methods are based on eq. (4.1)
3 −1
𝑄 = ∫𝐴 𝑉𝑑𝐴 (𝐿 𝑇 ) (4.1)
• Measurements using ultrasonic and electromagnetic methods give the average velocity
for the entire stream section.
• Then the discharge is obtained by multiplying the average velocity by the entire area of
cross section.
 Summary of Direct Methods
Method Principle Key Advantage Typical Use Cases
Area-Velocity Measure velocity & Direct, accurate Most rivers,
area standard method
Moving Boat Towed velocity Useful in Big rivers, flood
measurement large/high flow conditions
Dilution/Chemic Tracer dilution Non-intrusive, Turbid or
al indirect velocity inaccessible flows
Electromagnetic Faraday induction No moving parts, Conductive waters
voltage rapid
Ultrasonic Acoustic velocity Non-contact Wide range of
measurement conditions
 Indirect Methods
• Under this category are included those methods which make use of
the relationship between the flow discharge and the depths at
specified locations.
• The field measurement is restricted to the measurements of these
depths only.

Two broad classifications of indirect methods are:

1. Flow Measuring Structures

2. Slope Area Method
Method
 Indirect Methods: 1. Flow-Measuring Structures

• In relatively shallow rivers, small creeks, and open channels,

certain devices can be installed to measure the discharge.

Devices can be installed

1. Weirs and notches 2. Orifices 3. Flumes

• These, structures, may be permanently constructed structures

across the river or may be portable devices.
Indirect Methods Flow-Measuring Structures
• These conventional structures are used in field conditions also but
their use is limited by the ranges of:
✓ head, debris or
✓ sediment load of the stream and
✓ the backwater effects produced by the installations.

• To overcome streamflow measurement many of these limitations a

wide variety of flow measuring structures with specific advantages
are in use.
• The measurement on these is based on the energy principle.
• Localized losses involved due to inertia and viscous effects are
included in the form of a coefficient of discharge, which is preferably
ascertained experimentally.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches
• A weir may be defined as a regular obstruction across a channel section over which
flow takes place.
• It may be a vertical flat plate with a sharpened upper edge; then it is known as a
sharp-crested weir or notch.
• It may have a solid broad section of concrete or other material; then it is known as a
broad-crested weir.

Weirs are classified according to their shapes

Triangular (v- Trapezoidal

Rectangular, Parabolic.
notch), (cippoletti), and
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches

Figure: classification of Weirs by

Figure :Typical Rectangular Weir. cross-section shape
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

1. Weirs and Notches

The rectangular weir is the most popular.
• A rectangular section that spans the full width of the channel is
known as a suppressed weir.
• If the width of the weir section is less than the width of the channel,
it is a weir with end contraction.
• Where the downstream water level is lower than the crest, the weir
is said to have a free discharge.
• If the downstream level is higher than the crest level, it is known as
a drowned or submerged weir.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir
• The water flowing over a sharp-crested weir under free discharge conditions
falls away from the downstream face of the weir.
• This forms a nappe, as shown in Figure 4.1.
• Air is trapped between the lower nappe surface and downstream face of the
weir.
• Thus the underside of the jet or lower nappe is exposed to the atmospheric
pressure.
• If means of restoring this air are not provided, the entrapped air will be carried
away by the flowing water, creating a negative pressure.
• This can increase the discharge as much as 25% but can damage the structure.
• In a contracted weir, air is restored from the sides, and in a suppressed weir,
through ventilation pipes.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested
Weir
 Indirect Methods
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir
❑Rectangular sharp-crested suppressed weir. Apply the energy equation
at points 1 and 2 on the streamline AA’ in Figure 4.2, and assume (after
Weisbach) that the pressure at point 2 is atmospheric. Crest as a datum:
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir
➢ The coefficient of discharge should preferably be determined
experimentally.
➢ When the head is not greater than one-third of the weir length, an
approximate value of the discharge coefficient is taken as 0.6 to 0.62.
➢ This is the basic equation for a suppressed rectangular weir, which
can be expressed more generally as:
𝟑
𝑸. = 𝑪𝒘 𝑳𝑯𝟐 𝟑
𝑳 𝑻−𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
where 𝑪𝒘 is the weir coefficient, 𝑪𝒘 = 𝑪𝒅 𝟐𝒈
𝟑
• Where L is the clear water way (in meters) H is the total head (including
velocity head) over crest (in meters) and 𝑪𝒘 is the coefficient of discharge,
which for free flow conditions may be taken as 1.705 (for Broad-crested
weirs/spillways) or 1.84 (for Sharp-crested weirs/ spillways).
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir
• Rectangular weir with end contractions. When the weir length is less
than the width of the channel, it is known as the weir with end
contractions.
• The effective length of weir in this case is less than the actual weir
length, due to contraction of the flow jet caused by the sidewalls.
• The formula is given by

𝟐 𝟑
𝟑 −𝟏
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒅 𝟐𝒈 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝒏𝑯 𝑯𝟐 𝑳 𝑻 (𝟑)
𝟑
• where n is the number of end contractions; if both ends are contracted, n =
2.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

1. Weirs and Notches :Flow over Sharp-Crested Weir

➢ Rectangular weir with velocity of approach. The effective head responsible for the
discharge is the sum of water head and the head due to velocity of approach.
➢ If the latter is not very small, the limits of integration in eq. (d) should be modified
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗𝟎 𝒗𝟎
between and (𝑯 + ).
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

• The resulting equation is :

𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝒗𝟎 𝒗𝟎 𝒗𝟎
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒅 𝟐𝒈 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝒏(𝑯 + ) 𝑯+ − 𝑳𝟑 𝑻−𝟏 (𝟒)
𝟑 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

▪ In eq. (4), 𝒗𝟎 cannot be found unless Q is known. Thus the equation is first solved by
neglecting 𝒗𝟎 .
• The approximate discharge thus determined is used to find 𝒗𝟎 .
• A revised value of Q is determined using this 𝒗𝟎 .
• The process is repeated until the final discharge is within 1% of the preceding discharge.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Triangular (V-notch) weir. These are suitable for low discharges, because the more rapidly
on a triangular section.
• The area of elemental strip in Figure 4.3, the rate of discharge through an elemental area, dA,is:

𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 (5)
Ѳ
where 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑥𝑑ℎ, and,𝑥 = 𝐻 − ℎ tan ,Then;
2
Ѳ
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔ℎ (𝐻 − ℎ) tan 𝑑ℎ
2
𝐻
Ѳ 1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan න 𝐻 − ℎ ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
2 0
8 𝞱 5
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan 𝐻2
15 2
8 𝞱 5 𝟑 −𝟏
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan 𝐻2 𝑳 𝑻 (6)
15 2
5
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐻 2

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Ѳ = 90 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑤

= 2.50 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑈. 𝑆. 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑤 = 1.38 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Triangular (V-notch) weir. These are suitable for low discharges, because
the head increases more rapidly on a triangular section.
The area of elemental strip in Figure 4.3,

Figure4.3V-notch section.
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Trapezoidal weir.

Example
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Trapezoidal weir. The discharge is the

sum of discharges over the rectan- gular
section with end contractions and over the
triangular section.
• A trapezoidal weir with a side slope of 1
horizontal to 4 vertical is known as a
Cippoletti weir.
• The discharge through a Cippoletti
weir is given by the Francis formula
for a suppressed rectangular weir [eq.
(2)], in which the coefficient is
increased by about 1%:

𝟑
𝟑 −𝟏
𝑸. = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝑳𝑯𝟐 𝑳 𝑻 (𝟔)
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Trapezoidal weir.
• The discharge is the sum of discharges over
the rectangular section with end contractions
and over the triangular section.
• A trapezoidal weir with a side slope of 1
horizontal to 4 vertical is known as a
Cippoletti weir.
• The discharge through a Cippoletti weir is
given by the Francis formula for a suppressed
rectangular weir [eq. (2)], in which the
coefficient is increased by about 1%:

𝟑
𝟑 −𝟏
𝑸. = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝑳𝑯𝟐 𝑳 𝑻 (𝟔)
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Example 6.2:
A Cippoletti weir has a breadth of 60 cm at its crest. The head of water
flowing over the crest is 30 cm. Determine its discharge.
Solution:
Given,
Crest width (L) = 60 cm= 0.6m
Head of flow over the crest (H) = 30 cm=0.3m
So, discharge through the weir (Q)
𝟑
𝑸. = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎 ∗ (𝟎. 𝟑𝒎)𝟐
𝟑
=𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟑 𝒎 /𝒔
Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Broad Crested Weir
Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Broad Crested Weir
 Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Flumes
• Flumes are devices in which the flow is locally accelerated by means of (1) a lateral
contraction in the channel sides, or (2) combining the lateral contraction with a hump in the
channel bed.
• The first type is known as a venturi flume.
• The equation for discharge through a flume is based on the energy principle (Bernoulli’s
theorem).
• Usually, flumes are designed to achieve the critical flow in the contracted (throat) section.
• Flumes have four advantages:
1. they can operate with small head loss;
2. they are insensitive to the velocity of approach;
3. they make good measurements without submergence as well as under submerged
conditions; and
4. there is no related sediment deposition problem.
Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures
Indirect Methods: Flow-Measuring Structures

Individual Assignment
 Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method

• The area slope method can be improved to give

good results by incorporating the principle of
conservation of energy between the two points of
the selected reach.
• Considering reference datum as the channel bed
at points (1) and (2) as shown in Fig. below,
Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to calculate
the head loss as

𝑉1 2
𝐴𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐻1 = 𝑍1 + 𝑌1 + (1)
2𝑔

𝑉2 2
𝐴𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐻2 = 𝑍2 + 𝑌2 + + ℎL (2)
2𝑔
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method
 Indirect Methods: Slope Area Method

The estimated discharge lies in the range of 25.908 to 30.462 cumec.