Reproduction

Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number

and increase their population.

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Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one

organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its
own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular
organisms and a few plants.

For more information on Plant Reproduction, watch the below

video

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Sexual Reproduction

The mode of reproduction involves two individuals; one male and one
female. They produce sex cells or gametes, which fuse to form a new
organism.

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Asexual Reproduction

Fission
  Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most unicellular
organisms.

 When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission

(e.g. paramecium).

 When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple

fission (e.g. Plasmodium).

 Planes of fission may be different for different organisms.

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Budding

 Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like

structure is formed on the parent’s body, which gives rise to a new
individual.

 Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and
become a new individual (hydra).
For more information on Budding, watch the below video

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Regeneration and Fragmentation

 Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body

part by the organism (e.g. lizard).

 Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented

into smaller pieces, and each piece grows into a whole new
organism.
  E.g. Planaria, Hydra

 Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra

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Spore Formation

Organisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into completely new
individuals when dispersed from their fruiting bodies. Spores are produced
inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that protects
them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental
conditions, they germinate and begin to grow.
Read more: Spore Formation

Vegetative Propagation
  This is a type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.

 The vegetative parts of the plant, like leaves, stems, and roots, give
rise to a new plant.

 Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.

 Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g.

bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.
grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.

 Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue

culture.

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Sexual Reproduction

Types of Cell Division

Two types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:

Mitosis

 Takes place in somatic cells

 Maintains the chromosome number

 Produces two, diploid daughter cells

 Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell rep

lacement and regeneration

Meiosis

 Takes place in sex cells

 Reduces the number of chromosomes by half

  Produces four haploid daughter cells

 Required for sexual reproduction, i.e gamete formation

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The Reproductive System

In humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female

reproductive systems. Testes are the main reproductive structure in males
where sperms (male gametes) are produced, and ovum (female gamete)
is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and
female reproductive systems in humans.

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Male Reproductive System

 The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

 They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce the
male sex hormone testosterone.
Male Primary Reproductive Organ

 The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

 They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain
seminiferous tubules as the structural and functional unit.

 Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and

mature in the epididymis.

 Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous

tubules secrete the hormone testosterone.

Male Accessory Reproductive Organs

 Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive

process.

 The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the
reproductive system which make semen and nourish the sperm.

 Penis, having the urethra passing through it, is called a copulatory

organ.
Male Ducts

 In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.

 A single vas deferens carries sperm from the respective testis up to

the urethra.

 The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.

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Female Reproductive System

The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair

of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus
and the vagina.

Female Primary Reproductive Organ

  The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries.

 They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also
produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.

Female Accessory Reproductive Organ

 The uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive

organs in human females.

 The uterus is the site of fetal development, and the vagina receives
sperm from the male. Ovum is carried from the ovaries to the uterus
through a pair of oviducts.

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Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation

 Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum

from the ovary and its removal from the body when
fertilization does not happen.

 During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also

breaks down while the ovum is removed from the body.

 Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones,

estrogen and progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.

 In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.

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Fertilization

Human Reproduction

Humans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female
produces eggs. When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that
gives rise to a new progeny.

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Contraceptive Methods
Reproductive Health

Reproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted

pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of
reproductive health awareness.

Contraceptives

 Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and

help avoid STDs.

 Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers,

hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.

Coitus Interruptus
  It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is
stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive
tracts.

Rhythm Method

 Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is

avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization
are very high.

Condoms

 One of the most effective methods of contraception.

 A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female
tract preventing pregnancy.

 It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.

Diaphragms

 Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female

reproductive tracts.

 They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus
prevent pregnancy.

Contraceptive Pills

 Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.

 They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the
release of the ovum from the ovaries.

Emergency Pill

 Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to
avoid pregnancy.

 They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent
a successful implantation even if the egg gets fertilized.

IUD

 IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.

 They can be used for a couple of years.

 It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and
preventing successful implantation of the zygote.

Sterilization

 Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.

  This can be done in both males and females.

 In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal

ligation.

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Reproduction in Plants

Plants reproduce by both asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative

propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in plants. Let’s learn now
about sexual reproduction in plants.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

 Sexual reproduction in plants happens through flowers.

 Essential whorls of the flowers such as androecium and gynoecium

help in the sexual reproduction of plants.

Read more: Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Non-Essential Parts of Flowers

 The typical structure of flowers contains essential whorls and non-

essential whorls.

 Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not

directly take part in reproduction.

 Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and
also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.

 Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.

Essential Whorls of Flowers

 Androecium and gynoecium are called essential/reproductive whorls

of a flower.

 Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes, and

gynoecium produces ovules which are female gametes.

 Bisexual flowers contain both whorls, while unisexual flowers

contain either of them.

 Each individual member of androecium is called a stamen and

consists of an anther and filament.

 Anther produces haploid pollen grains.

  Each individual member of the gynoecium is called a pistil and
consists of a stigma, style and ovary.

Pollination

The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a

flower is known as pollination.

 It is required for fertilization.

 Pollination has two types, self-pollination (autogamy) and cross-

pollination (allogamy).

 In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from

anthers to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the
same plant.

 In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the

stigma of another flower.

 Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination.

Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.

Know more: Pollination

Fertilization

Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

 In flowering plants, after pollination, the pollens germinate on the

stigma surface of the pistil and generate two male nuclei.
 Ovule has an egg cell and two polar nuclei.

 One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms a triploid
endosperm.

 Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote
that gives rise to the embryo and future plant.

 After fertilization, the ovary becomes the fruit, and the ovules turn
into seeds. All other parts wither away.