Shipbuilding

The construction of a ship is a highly technical and complicated process. It

involves the blending of many skilled trades and contract employees working
under the control of a primary contractor. Shipbuilding is performed for both
military and commercial purposes. It is an international business, with major
shipyards around the globe competing for a fairly limited amount of work.

Shipbuilding has changed radically since the 1980s. Formerly, most

construction took place in a building or graving dock, with the ship constructed
almost piece by piece from the ground up. However, advances in technology
and more detailed planning have made it possible to construct the vessel in
subunits or modules that have utilities and systems integrated within. Thus, the
modules may be relatively easily connected. This process is faster, less
expensive and provides better quality control. Further, this type of construction
lends itself towards automation and robotics, not only saving money, but
reducing exposures to chemical and physical hazards.

Overview of the Ship Construction Process

Figure 92.1 gives an overview of shipbuilding. The initial step is design. The
design considerations for various types of ships vary widely. Ships may
transport materials or people, may be surface ships or subsurface, may be
military or commercial and may be nuclear or non-nuclear powered. In the
design phase, not only should normal construction parameters be considered,
but the safety and health hazards associated with the construction or repair
process must be considered. In addition, environmental issues must be
addressed.

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Figure 92.1 Shipbuilding flow chart

Newport News Shipbuilding
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The basic component of ship building is steel plate. The plates are cut, shaped,
bent or otherwise manufactured to the desired configuration specified by the
design (see figure 92.2 and figure 92.3). Typically the plates are cut by an
automatic flame cutting process to various shapes. These shapes may be then
welded together to form I and T beams and other structural members (see
figure 92.4).

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Figure 92.2 Automatic flame cutting of steel plate in fabrication shop

Eileen Mirsch
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Figure 92.3 Bending of steel sheet

Newport News Shipbuilding

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Figure 92.4 Welded steel plate forming part of a ship's hull

Newport News Shipbuilding

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The plates are then sent to fabrication shops, where they are joined into various
units and subassemblies (see figure 92.5). At this juncture, piping, electrical
and other utility systems are assembled and integrated into the units. The units
are assembled using automatic or manual welding or a combination of the two.
Several types of welding processes are employed. The most common is stick
welding, in which a consumable electrode is used to join the steel. Other
welding processes use inert gas shielded arcs and even non-consumable
electrodes.

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Figure 92.5 Working on a ship subassembly

Newport News Shipbuilding
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The units or subassemblies are usually then transferred to an open-air platen or

lay down area where erection, or joining of assemblies, occurs to form even
larger units or blocks (see figure 92.6). Here, additional welding and fitting
occurs. Further, the units and welds must undergo quality-control inspections
and testing such as radiography, ultrasonic and other destructive or non-
destructive tests. Those welds found defective must be removed by grinding,
arc-air grouping or chiseling and then replaced. At this stage the units are
abrasive blasted to ensure proper profiling, and painted (see figure 92.7). Paint
may be applied by brush, roller or spray gun. Spraying is most commonly
utilized. The paints may be flammable or toxic or pose an environmental threat.
Control of abrasive blasting and painting operations must be performed at this
time.

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Figure 92.6 Combining of ship subassemblies into larger blocks

Newport News Shipbuilding
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Figure 92.7 Abrasive blasting of ship units prior to painting

Judi Baldwin
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The completed larger units are then moved to the graving dock, shipway or final
assembly area. Here, the larger units are joined together to form the vessel
(see figure 92.8). Again, much welding and fitting occur. Once the hull is
structurally complete and watertight, the vessel is launched. This may involve
sliding it into the water from the shipway on which it was constructed, flooding
of the dock in which it was constructed or lowering the vessel into the water.
Launchings are almost always accompanied by great celebration and fanfare.

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Figure 92.8 Adding ship's bow to the rest of a vessel

Newport News Shipbuilding

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After the ship is launched, it enters the outfitting phase. A large amount of time
and equipment are required. The work includes the fitting of cabling and piping,
the furnishing of galleys and accommodations, insulation work, installation of
electronic equipment and navigation aids and installation of propulsion and
ancillary machinery. This work is performed by a wide variety of skilled trades.

After completion of the outfitting phase, the ship undergoes both dock and sea
trials, during which all the ship's systems are proved to be fully functional and
operational. Finally, after all testing and associated repair work is performed,
the ship is delivered to the customer.

Steel fabrication
A detailed discussion of the steel fabrication process follows. It is discussed in
the context of cutting, welding and painting.

Cutting
The “assembly line” of the shipyard starts in the steel storage area. Here, large
steel plates of various strengths, sizes, and thicknesses are stored and readied
for fabrication. The steel is then blasted with abrasive and primed with a
construction primer that preserves the steel during the various phases of
construction. The steel plate then is transported to a fabrication facility. Here
the steel plate is cut by automatic burners to the desired size (see figure 92.2).
The resulting strips are then welded together to form the structural components
of the vessel (figure 92.4).

Welding
The structural framework of most ships is constructed of various grades of mild
and high-strength steel. Steel provides the formability, machinability and
weldability required, combined with the strength needed for ocean-going
vessels. Various grades of steel predominate in the construction of most ships,
although aluminium and other nonferrous materials are used for some
superstructures (e.g., deck-houses) and other specific areas within the ship.
Other materials found on ships, like stainless steel, galvanized steel and
copper-nickel alloy, are used for a variety of corrosion-resistance purposes and
to improve structural integrity. However, nonferrous materials are used in far
less quantity than steel. Shipboard systems (e.g., ventilation, combat,
navigational and piping) are usually where the more “exotic” materials are used.
These materials are required to perform a wide variety of functions, including
the ship propulsion systems, back-up power, kitchens, pump stations for fuel
transfer and combat systems.

Steel used for construction can be subdivided into three types: mild, high-
strength and high-alloy steel. Mild steels have valuable properties and are easy
to produce, purchase, form and weld. On the other hand, high-strength steels
are mildly alloyed to provide mechanical properties that are superior to the mild
steels. Extremely high-strength steels have been developed specifically for use
in naval construction. In general, the high-strength and high-yield steels are
called HY-80, HY-100 and HY-130. They have strength properties in excess of
the commercial-grade high-strength steels. More complicated welding
processes are necessary for high-strength steels in order to prevent
deterioration of their properties. Specific weld rods are needed for high-strength
steel, and weld joint heating (preheating) is usually required. A third general
class of steels, the high-alloy steels, are made by including relatively large
amounts of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium and manganese. These
steels, which include stainless steels, have valuable corrosion-resistance
properties and also require special welding processes.

Steel is an excellent material for shipbuilding purposes, and the choice of

welding electrode is critical in all welding applications during construction. The
standard goal is to obtain a weld with equivalent strength characteristics to that
of the base metal. Since minor flaws are likely to occur in production welding,
welds are often designed and welding electrodes chosen to produce welds with
properties in excess of those of the base metal.

Aluminium has found increased application as a shipbuilding metal due to its

high strength-to-weight ratio compared to steel. Although the use of aluminium
for hulls has been limited, aluminium superstructures are becoming more
common for both military and merchant ship construction. Vessels made solely
from aluminium are primarily smaller-sized boats, such as fishing boats,
pleasure boats, small passenger boats, gunboats and hydrofoils. The
aluminium used for shipbuilding and repair is generally alloyed with
manganese, magnesium, silicon and/or zinc. These alloys offer good strength,
corrosion resistance and weldability.

Shipyard welding processes, or more specifically fusion welding, is performed

at nearly every location in the shipyard environment. The process involves
joining metals by bringing adjoining surfaces to extremely high temperatures to
be fused together with a molten filler material. A heat source is used to heat the
edges of the joint, permitting them to fuse with molten weld fill metal (electrode,
wire or rod). The required heat is usually generated by an electric arc or a gas
flame. Shipyards choose the type of welding process based on customer
specifications, production rates and a variety of operating constraints including
government regulations. Standards for military vessels are usually more
stringent than commercial vessels.

An important factor with respect to the fusion-welding processes is arc shielding

to protect the weld pool. The temperature of the weld pool is substantially
higher than the adjoining metal's melting point. At extremely high temperatures,
a reaction with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere is rapid and has
negative effects on the weld strength. Should oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere become trapped within the weld metal and molten rod,
embrittlement of the weld area will occur. To protect against this weld impurity
and ensure weld quality, shielding from the atmosphere is required. In most
welding processes, shielding is accomplished by addition of a flux, a gas or a
combination of the two. Where a flux material is used, gases generated by
vaporization and chemical reaction at the electrode tip result in a combination of
flux and gas shielding that protect the weld from nitrogen and oxygen
entrapment. Shielding is discussed in the following sections, where specific
welding processes are described.

In electric arc welding, a circuit is created between the work-piece and an

electrode or wire. When the electrode or wire is held a short distance away from
the work-piece, a high-temperature arc is created. This arc generates sufficient
heat to melt the edges of the work-piece and the tip of the electrode or wire to
produce a fusion-welding system. There are a number of electric arc welding
processes suitable for use in shipbuilding. All processes require shielding of the
weld area from the atmosphere. They may be subdivided into flux-shielded and
gas-shielded processes.

Manufacturers of welding equipment and associated consumable and non-

consumable products report that arc welding with consumable electrodes is the
most universal welding process.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Flux-shielded electric arc welding

processes are distinguished primarily by their manual or semi-automatic nature
and the type of consumable electrode used. The SMAW process utilizes a
consumable electrode (30.5 to 46 cm in length) with a dry flux coating, held in a
holder and fed to the work-piece by the welder. The electrode consists of the
solid metal filler rod core, made from either drawn or cast material covered with
a sheath of metal powders. SMAW is also frequently referred to as “stick
welding” and “arc welding”. The electrode metal is surrounded by flux that melts
as welding progresses, covering the deposited molten metal with slag and
enveloping the immediate area in an atmosphere of protective gas. Manual
SMAW may be used for down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical and overhead
welding. SMAW processes may also be used semi-automatically through the
use of a gravity welding machine. Gravity machines use the weight of the
electrode and holder to produce travel along the work-piece.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is another flux-shielded electric arc welding

process used in many shipyards. In this process, a blanket of granulated flux is
deposited on the work-piece, followed by a consumable bare metal wire
electrode. Generally, the electrode serves as the filler material, although in
some cases metal granules are added to the flux. The arc, submerged in the
blanket of flux, melts the flux to produce a protective insulated molten shield in
the weld zone. High heat concentration permits heavy weld deposits at
relatively high speeds. After welding, the molten metal is protected by a layer of
fused flux, which is subsequently removed and may be recovered. Submerged
arc welding must be performed down hand and is ideally suited to butt welding
plates together on panel lines, platen areas and erection areas. The SAW
process is generally fully automatic, with equipment mounted on a moving
carriage or self-propelled platform on top of the work-piece. Since the SAW
process is primarily automatic, a good portion of time is spent aligning the weld
joint with the machine. Similarly, since the SAW arc operates under a covering
of granulated flux, the fume generation rate (FGR) or fume formation rate (FFR)
is low and will remain constant under various operating conditions provided that
there is adequate flux cover.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW). Another major category of electric arc welding
comprises the gas-shielded processes. These processes generally use bare
wire electrodes with an externally supplied shielding gas which may be inert,
active or a combination of the two. GMAW, also commonly referred to as metal
inert gas (MIG) welding, uses a consumable, automatically fed, small-diameter
wire electrode and gas shielding. GMAW is the answer to a long-sought method
of being able to weld continuously without the interruption of changing
electrodes. An automatic wire feeder is required. A wire spooling system
provides an electrode/wire filler rate that is at a constant speed, or the speed
fluctuates with a voltage sensor. At the point where the electrode meets the
weld arc, argon or helium being used as the shielding gas is supplied by the
welding gun. It was found that for welding steel, a combination of and/or an
inert gas could be used. Often, a combination of the gases is used to optimize
cost and weld quality.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Another type of gas-shielded welding

process is gas tungsten arc welding, sometimes referred to as tungsten inert
gas (TIG) welding or the trade name Heliarc, because helium was initially used
as the shielding gas. This was the first of the “new” welding processes,
following stick welding by about 25 years. The arc is generated between the
work-piece and a tungsten electrode, which is not consumed. An inert gas,
usually argon or helium, provides the shielding and provides for a clean, low-
fume process. Also, the GTAW process arc does not transfer the filler metal,
but simply melts the material and the wire, resulting in a cleaner weld. GTAW is
most often employed in shipyards for welding aluminium, sheet metal and
small-diameter pipes and tubes, or to deposit the first pass on a multi-pass weld
in larger pipe and fittings.

Flux core arc welding (FCAW) uses equipment similar to GMAW in that the wire
is fed continuously to the arc. The main difference is that the FCAW electrode is
a tubular electrode wire with a flux core centre that helps with localized
shielding in the welding environment. Some flux cored wire provides adequate
shielding with the flux core alone. However, many FCAW processes used in the
shipbuilding environment require the addition of gas shielding for the quality
requirements of the shipbuilding industry.

The FCAW process provides a high-quality weld with higher production rates
and welder efficiency than the traditional SMAW process. The FCAW process
allows for a full range of production requirements, such as overhead and
vertical welding. FCAW electrodes tend to be a little more expensive than
SMAW materials, although in many cases increased quality and productivity are
worth the investment.

Plasma-arc welding (PAW). The last of the shielded gas welding processes is
plasma-metal inert-gas welding. PAW is very similar to the GTAW process
except that the arc is forced to pass through a restriction before reaching the
work-piece. The result is a jet stream of intensely hot and fast-moving plasma.
The plasma is an ionizing stream of gas that carries the arc, which is generated
by constricting the arc to pass through a small orifice in the torch. PAW results
in a more concentrated, high-temperature arc, and this permits faster welding.
Aside from the use of the orifice to accelerate the gas, PAW is identical to
GTAW, using a non-consumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas shield.
PAW is generally manual and has minimal use in shipbuilding, although it is
sometimes used for flame spraying applications. It is used primarily for steel
cutting in the shipbuilding environment (see figure 92.9).

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Figure 92.9 Underwater plasma-arc cutting of steel plate

Caroline Kiehner
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Gas welding, brazing and soldering. Gas welding employs heat generated by
the burning of a gas fuel and generally uses a filler rod for the metal deposited.
The most common fuel is acetylene, used in combination with oxygen
(oxyacetylene gas welding). A hand-held torch directs the flame to the work-
piece while simultaneously melting filler metal which is deposited on the joint.
The surface of the work-piece melts to form a molten puddle, with filler material
used to fill gaps or grooves. The molten metal, mainly filler metal, solidifies as
the torch progresses along the work-piece. Gas welding is comparatively slow
and not suitable for use with automatic or semiautomatic equipment.
Consequently, it is rarely used for normal production welding in shipyards. The
equipment is small and portable, and it can be useful for welding thin plate (up
to about 7 mm), as well as for small-diameter pipe, heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) trunks (sheet metal), electrical cable ways and for brazing
or soldering. Identical or similar equipment is used for cutting.

Soldering and brazing are techniques for bonding two metal surfaces without
melting the parent metal. A liquid is made to flow into and fill the space between
the two surfaces and then solidify. If the temperature of the filler metal is below
450ºC, the process is called soldering; if it is above 450ºC, the process is called
brazing. Soldering is commonly done using heat from a soldering iron, flame,
electrical resistance or induction. Brazing uses the heat from a flame,
resistance or induction. Brazing may also be done by dipping parts in a bath.
Soldered and brazed joints do not have the strength properties of welded joints.
Consequently, brazing and soldering find limited application in shipbuilding and
repair, except for primarily small-diameter pipe joints, sheet metal fabrication,
small and infrequent joiner work and maintenance functions.

Other welding processes. There are additional types of welding that may be
used in the shipyard environment in small quantities for a variety of reasons.
Electroslag welding transfers heat through molten slag, which melts the work-
piece and the filler metal. Although the equipment used is similar to that used
for electric arc welding, the slag is maintained in a molten state by its resistance
to the current passing between the electrode and the work-piece. Therefore, it
is a form of electric resistance welding. Often a cooled backing plate is used
behind the work-piece to contain the molten pool. Electrogas welding employs a
similar setup but uses a flux-coated electrode and gas shielding. Both of
these processes are very efficient for automatically making vertical butt welds
and are highly advantageous for thicker plate. These techniques are expected
to receive considerably wider application in shipbuilding.

Thermite welding is a process that uses superheated liquid metal to melt the
work-piece and provided filler metal. The liquid metal results from a chemical
reaction between a melt oxide and aluminium. The liquid metal is poured into
the cavity to be welded, and the cavity is surrounded by a sand mould.
Thermite welding is somewhat similar to casting and is primarily used to repair
castings and forgings or to weld large structural sections such as a stern frame.
Laser welding is a new technology which uses a laser beam to melt and join the
work-piece. Although the feasibility of laser welding has been proven, cost has
prevented its commercial application to date. The potential for efficient, high-
quality welding may make laser welding an important technique for shipbuilding
in the future.

Another relatively new welding technique is called electron beam welding. The
weld is made by firing a stream of electrons through an orifice to the work-
piece, which is surrounded by an inert gas. Electron beam welding does not
depend on thermal conductivity of the material to melt the metal. Consequently,
both lower energy requirements and reduced metallurgical effects on the steel
are significant benefits of this technique. As with laser welding, high cost is a
major problem.

Stud welding is a form of electric arc welding in which the stud itself is the
electrode. A stud welding gun holds the stud while the arc is formed and the
plate and stud end become molten. The gun then forces the stud against the
plate and the stud is welded to the plate. Shielding is obtained by the use of a
ceramic ferrule surrounding the stud. Stud welding is a semi-automatic process
commonly used in shipbuilding to facilitate installation of non-metallic materials,
such as insulation, to steel surfaces.

Painting and finish coating

Painting is performed at almost every location in the shipyard. The nature of
shipbuilding and repair requires several types of paints to be used for various
applications. Paint types range from water-based coatings to high-performance
epoxy coatings. The type of paint needed for a certain application depends on
the environment to which the coating will be exposed. Paint application
equipment ranges from simple brushes and rollers to airless sprayers and
automatic machines. In general, shipboard paint requirements exist in the
following areas:

· underwater (hull bottom)

· waterline
· topside superstructures
· internal spaces and tanks
· weather decks
· loose equipment.

Many different painting systems exist for each of these locations, but navy ships
may require a specific type of paint for every application through a military
specification (Mil-spec). There are many considerations when choosing paints,
including environmental conditions, severity of environmental exposure, drying
and curing times, applications equipment and procedures. Many shipyards have
specific facilities and yard locations where painting occurs. Enclosed facilities
are expensive, but yield higher quality and efficiency. Open-air painting
generally has a lower transfer efficiency and is limited to good weather
conditions.

Shipyard paint coating systems.

Paints are used for a variety of purposes on a variety of locations on the ships.
No one paint can perform all of the desired functions (e.g., rust prevention, anti-
fouling and alkaline resistance). Paints are made up of three main ingredients:
pigment, a vehicle and a solvent. Pigments are small particles that generally
determine the colour as well as the many properties associated with the
coating. Examples of pigments are zinc oxide, talc, carbon, coal tar, lead, mica,
aluminium and zinc dust. The vehicle can be thought of as the glue that holds
the paint pigments together. Many paints are referred to by their binder type
(e.g., epoxy, alkyd, urethane, vinyl, phenolic). The binder is also very important
for determining the coating's performance characteristics (e.g., flexibility,
chemical resistance, durability, finish). The solvent is added to thin the paint
and allow for flowing application to surfaces. The solvent portion of the paint
evaporates when the paint dries. Some typical solvents include acetone,
mineral spirits, xylene, methyl ethyl ketone and water. Anticorrosive and anti-
fouling paints are typically used on ships' hulls and are the main two types of
paint used in the shipbuilding industry. The anticorrosive paints are either vinyl-,
lacquer-, urethane- or newer epoxy-based coating systems. The epoxy systems
are now very popular and exhibit all of the qualities which the marine
environment requires. Anti-fouling paints are used to prevent the growth and
attachment of marine organisms on the hulls of vessels. Copper-based paints
are widely used as anti-fouling paints. These paints release minute quantities of
toxic substances in the immediate vicinity of the vessel's hull. To achieve
different colours, lampblack, red iron oxide or titanium dioxide may be added to
the paint.

Shipyard primer coatings. The first coating system applied to raw steel sheets
and parts is generally preconstruction primer, which is sometimes referred to as
“shop primer”. This coat is important for maintaining the condition of the part
throughout the construction process. Preconstruction priming is performed on
steel plates, shapes, sections of piping and ventilation ducting. Shop primer has
two important functions: (1) preserving the steel material for the final product
and (2) aiding in the productivity of construction. Most preconstruction primers
are zinc rich, with organic or inorganic binders. Zinc silicates are predominant
among the inorganic zinc primers. Zinc coating systems protect coatings in
much the same manner as galvanizing. If zinc is coated on steel, oxygen will
react with the zinc to form zinc oxide, which forms a tight layer that does not
allow water and air to come into contact with the steel.

Paint-applying equipment. There are many types of paint application equipment

used in the shipbuilding industry. Two common methods used are compressed-
air and airless sprayers. Compressed-air systems spray both air and paint,
which causes some paint to atomize (dry) quickly prior to reaching the intended
surface. The transfer efficiency of air-assisted spray systems can vary from 65
to 80%. This low transfer efficiency is due mainly to overspray, drift and the air
sprayer's inefficiencies; these sprayers are becoming obsolete because of their
low transfer ability.

The most widely used form of paint application in the shipbuilding industry is the
airless sprayer. The airless sprayer is a system which simply compresses paint
in a hydraulic line and has a spray nozzle at the end; hydrostatic pressure,
instead of air pressure, conveys the paint. To reduce the amount of overspray
and spillage, shipyards are maximizing the use of airless paint sprayers. Airless
sprayers are much cleaner to operate and have fewer leaking problems than
compressed-air sprayers because the system requires less pressure. Airless
sprayers have close to 90% transfer efficiency, depending on the conditions. A
new technology which can be added to the airless sprayer is called high
volume, low pressure (HVLP). HVLP offers an even higher transfer efficiency, in
certain conditions. Measurements of transfer efficiency are estimates and
include allowances for drips and spills which can occur when painting.

Thermal spray, also known as metal or flame spray, is the application of

aluminium or zinc coatings to steel for long-term corrosion protection. This
coating process is used on a wide variety of commercial and military
applications. It is significantly different from conventional coating practices due
to its specialized equipment and relatively slow production rates. There are two
basic types of thermal coating machines: combustion wire and arc spray. The
combustion wire type consists of combustible gases and a flame system with a
wire feed controller. The combustible gases melt the material to be sprayed
onto the parts. The electric arc spray machine instead uses a power supply arc
to melt the flame sprayed material. This system includes an air-compression
and filtration system, a power arc supply and controller and an arc flame spray
gun. The surface must be properly prepared for proper adhesion of flame
sprayed materials. The most common surface preparation technique is air
blasting with fine grit (e.g., aluminium oxide).

The initial cost of thermal spray is usually high compared to painting, although
when the lifecycle is taken into account, thermal spray becomes more
economically attractive. Many shipyards have their own thermal spray
machines, and other shipyards will subcontract their thermal coating work.
Thermal spray can be done in a shop or on board the ship.

Painting practices and methods. Painting is performed in nearly every area in

the shipyard, from the initial priming of the steel to the final paint detailing of the
ship. Methods for painting vary greatly from process to process. Mixing of paint
is performed both manually and mechanically and is usually done in an area
surrounded by berms or secondary containment pallets; some of these are
covered areas. Outdoor as well as indoor painting occurs in the shipyard.
Shrouding fences, made of steel, plastic or fabric, are frequently used to help
contain paint overspray or to block the wind and catch paint particles. New
technology will aid in reducing the amount of airborne particles. Reducing the
amount of overspray also reduces the amount of paint used and thus saves the
shipyard money.

Surface preparation and painting areas in the shipyard

To illustrate painting and surface preparation practices in the shipbuilding and
repair industry, practices can be generically described in five main areas. The
following five areas help to illustrate how painting occurs in the shipyard.

Hull painting. Hull painting occurs on both repair ships and new construction
ships. Hull surface preparation and painting on repair ships is normally
performed when the ship is fully drydocked (i.e., on the graving dock of a
floating drydock). For new construction, the hull is prepared and painted at a
building position using one of the techniques discussed above. Air and/or water
blasting with mineral grit are the most common types of surface preparation for
hulls. Surface preparation involves blasting the surface from platforms or lifts.
Similarly, paint is applied using sprayers and high-reach equipment such as
man-lifts, scissor lifts or portable scaffolding. Hull painting systems vary in the
number of coats required.

Superstructure painting. The superstructure of the ship consists of the exposed

decks, deck houses and other structures above the main deck. In many cases,
scaffolding will be used on board the ship to reach antennas, houses and other
superstructures. If it is likely that paint or blast material will fall into adjacent
waters, shrouding is put into place. On ships being repaired, the ship's
superstructure is painted mostly while berthed. The surface is prepared using
either hand tools or air-nozzle blasting. Once the surface is prepared and the
associated surface materials and grit are cleaned up and disposed of, then
painting can commence. Paint systems usually are applied with airless paint
sprayers. The painters access the superstructures with existing scaffolding,
ladders and various lifting equipment that was used during surface preparation.
The shrouding system (if applicable) that was used for blast containment will
stay in place to help contain any paint overspray.

Interior tank and compartment painting. Tanks and compartments on board

ships must be coated and re-coated to maintain the longevity of the ship. Re-
coating of repair ship tanks requires a large amount of surface preparation prior
to painting. The majority of the tanks are at the bottom of the ship (e.g., ballast
tanks, bilges, fuel tanks). The tanks are prepared for paint by using solvents
and detergents to remove grease and oil build-up. The wastewater developed
during tank cleaning must be properly treated and disposed of. After the tanks
are dried, they are abrasive blasted. During the blasting operation, the tank
must have recirculating air and the grit must be vacuumed out. The vacuum
systems used are either of a liquid ring or rotary screw type. These vacuums
must be very powerful to remove the grit from the tank. The vacuum systems
and ventilation systems are generally located on the dock's surface, and access
to the tanks is through holes in the hull. Once the surface is blasted and the grit
is removed, painting can begin. Adequate ventilation and respirators are
required for all tank and compartment surface preparation and painting (i.e., in
enclosed or confined spaces).

Paint surface preparation as stages of construction. Once the blocks, or

multiple units, leave the assembly area, they are frequently transported to a
blast area where the entire block is prepared for paint. At this point, the block is
usually blasted back down to bare metal (i.e., the construction primer is
removed) (see figure 92.7). The most frequent method for block surface
preparation is air-nozzle blasting. The next stage is the paint application stage.
Painters generally use airless spray equipment on access platforms. Once the
block's coating system has been applied, the block is transported to the on-
block stage, where outfitting materials are installed.

Small parts painting areas. Many parts comprising a ship need to have a
coating system applied to them prior to installation. For example, piping spools,
vent ducting, foundations and doors are painted before they are installed on
block. Small parts are generally prepared for paint in a designated area of the
shipyard. Small parts painting can occur in another designated location in the
shipyard that best matches production needs. Some small parts are painted in
the various shops, while others are painted in a standard location operated by
the paint department.

Surface preparation and painting on block and on board

Final painting of the ship occurs on board, and touch-up painting will frequently
occur on block (see figure 92.10). On-block touch-up painting occurs for several
reasons. In some cases, paint systems are damaged on block and need to be
resurfaced, or perhaps the wrong paint system was applied and needs to be
replaced. On-block painting involves using portable blasting and painting
equipment throughout the on-block outfitting areas. On-board painting involves
preparing and painting the interface sections between the construction blocks
and repainting areas damaged by welding, rework, on-board outfitting and other
processes. The surfaces can be prepared by hand tools, sanding, brushing,
solvent cleaning or any of the other surface preparation techniques. Paint is
applied with portable airless sprayers, rollers and brushes.

Figure 92.10 Touch-up painting on a ship's hull

Newport News Shipbuilding
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Outfitting
Pre-erection outfitting of construction blocks is the current shipbuilding method
used by all competitive shipbuilders worldwide. Outfitting is the process of
installing parts and various subassemblies (e.g., piping systems, ventilation
equipment, electrical components) on the block prior to joining the blocks
together at erections. The outfitting of blocks throughout the shipyard lends
itself to forming an assembly line approach to shipbuilding.

Outfitting at each stage of construction is planned to make the process flow

smoothly throughout the shipyard. For simplicity, outfitting can be divided into
three main stages of construction once the steel structure of the block has been
assembled:

1. unit outfitting
2. on-block outfitting
3. on-board outfitting.

Unit outfitting is the stage where fittings, parts, foundations, machinery and
other outfitting materials are assembled independent of the hull block (i.e., units
are assembled separate from steel structural blocks). Unit outfitting allows
workers to assemble shipboard components and systems on the ground, where
they have easy access to the machinery and workshops. Units are installed at
either the on-board or the on-block stage of construction. Units come in varying
sizes, shapes and complexities. In some cases, units are as simple as a fan
motor connected to a plenum and coil. Large, complex units are mainly
composed of components in machinery spaces, boilers, pump rooms and other
complex areas of the ship. Unit outfitting involves assembling piping spools and
other components together, then connecting the components into units.
Machinery spaces are areas on the ship where machinery is located (e.g.,
engine rooms, pump stations and generators) and outfitting there is intensive.
Outfitting units on the ground increases safety and efficiency by reducing the
work hours that would otherwise be allocated to on-block or on-board work in
more confined spaces where conditions are more difficult.

On-block outfitting is the stage of construction where most of the outfitting

material is installed onto the blocks. Outfitting materials installed on block
consist of ventilation systems, piping systems, doors, lights, ladders, railings,
electrical assemblies and so on. Many units are also installed at the on-block
stage. Throughout the on-block outfitting stage, the block can be lifted, rotated
and moved to efficiently facilitate installing outfitting materials on the ceilings,
walls and floors. All of the shops and services in the shipyard must be in
communication at the on-block stage to ensure that materials are installed at
the right time and place.

On-board outfitting is performed after the blocks are lifted onto the ship under
construction (i.e., after erection). At this time, the ship is either at a building
position (building ways or building dock), or the ship could be berthed at
pierside. The blocks are already outfitted to a large extent, although much more
work is still needed before the ship is ready to operate. On-board outfitting
involves the process of installing large units and blocks on board the ship.
Installation includes lifting the large blocks and units on board the new ship and
welding or bolting them into place. On-board outfitting also involves connecting
the shipboard systems together (i.e., piping system, ventilation system and
electrical system). All of the wiring systems are pulled throughout the ship at the
on-board stage.

Testing
The operation and test stage of construction assesses the functionality of
installed components and systems. At this stage, systems are operated,
inspected and tested. If the systems fail the tests for any reason, the system
must be repaired and retested until it is fully operational. All piping systems on
board the ship are pressurized to locate leaks that may exist in the system.
Tanks also need structural testing, which is accomplished by filling the tanks
with fluids (i.e., salt water or fresh water) and inspecting for structural stability.
Ventilation, electrical and many other systems are tested. Most system testing
and operations occur while the ship is docked at pierside. However, there is an
increasing trend to perform testing at earlier stages of construction (e.g.,
preliminary testing in the production shops). Performing tests at earlier stages
of construction makes it easier to fix failures because of the increased
accessibility to the systems, although complete systems tests will always need
be done on board. Once all preliminary pierside testing is performed, the ship is
sent to sea for a series of fully operational tests and sea trials before the ship is
delivered to its owner.

Ship Repair

Steel ship repair practices and processes

Ship repair generally includes all ship conversions, overhauls, maintenance
programmes, major damage repairs and minor equipment repairs. Ship repair is
a very important part of the shipping and shipbuilding industry. Approximately
25% of the labour force in most private shipbuilding shipyards does repair and
conversion work. Currently there are many ships that need updating and/or
conversions to meet safety and environmental requirements. With fleets
worldwide becoming old and inefficient, and with the high cost of new ships, the
situation is putting a strain on shipping companies. In general, conversion and
repair work in US shipyards is more profitable than new construction. In new-
construction shipyards, repair contracts, overhauls and conversions also help to
stabilize the workforce during times of limited new construction, and new
construction augments the repair labour workload. The ship repair process is
much like the new construction process, except that it is generally on a smaller
scale and is performed at a faster pace. The repair process requires a more
timely coordination and an aggressive bidding process for ship repair contracts.
Repair work customers are generally the navy, commercial ship owners and
other marine structure owners.

The customer usually provides contract specifications, drawings and standard

items. Contracts can be firm fixed price (FFP), firm fixed price award fee
(FFPAF), cost plus fixed fee

CPFF), cost plus award fee (CPAF) or urgent repair contracts. The process
starts in the marketing area when the shipyard is asked for a request for
proposal (RFP) or an invitation for bid (IFB). The lowest price usually wins an
IFB contract, while a RFP award can be based on factors other than price. The
repair estimating group prepares the cost estimate and the proposal for the
repair contract. Bid estimates generally include worker-hours and wage rates,
materials, overhead, special service costs, subcontractor dollars, overtime and
shift premiums, other fees, facilities cost of money and, based on these, the
estimated price of the contract. Once the contract is awarded, a production plan
must be developed.

Repair planning, engineering and production

Although some preliminary planning is performed at the proposal stage of the
contract, much work is still needed to plan and execute the contract in a timely
manner. The following steps should be accomplished: read and understand all
contract specifications, categorize the work, integrate the work into a logical
production plan and determine the critical path. Planning, engineering,
materials, subcontracts and repair production departments must work closely
together to perform the repair in the most timely and cost-effective manner.
Prefabrication of piping, ventilation, electrical and other machinery is performed,
in many cases, prior to the ship's arrival. Pre-outfitting and prepackaging of
repair units takes cooperation with the production shops to perform work in a
timely manner.

Common types of repair work

Ships are similar to other types of machinery in that they require frequent
maintenance and, sometimes, complete overhauls to remain operational. Many
shipyards have maintenance contracts with shipping companies, ships and/or
ship classes that identify frequent maintenance work. Examples of maintenance
and repair duties include:

· blasting and repainting the ship's hull, freeboard, superstructure, interior tanks
and work areas
· major machinery rebuilding and installation (e.g., diesel engines, turbines,
generators and pump stations)
· systems overhauls, maintenance and installation (e.g., flushing, testing and
installation of a piping system)
· new system installation, either adding new equipment or replacing systems
that are outdated (e.g., navigational systems, combat systems, communication
systems or updated piping systems)
· propeller and rudder repairs, modification and alignment
· creation of new machinery spaces on the ship (e.g., cut-out of existing steel
structure and adding new walls, stiffeners, vertical supports and webbing).

In many cases, repair contracts are an emergency situation with very little
warning, which makes ship repair a fast moving and unpredictable environment.
Normal repair ships will stay in the shipyard from 3 days to 2 months, while
major repairs and conversions can last more than a year

Large repairs and conversion projects

Large repair contracts and major conversions are common in the ship repair
industry. Most of these large repair contracts are performed by shipyards that
have the ability to construct ships, although some primarily repair yards will
perform extensive repairs and conversions.

Examples of major repair contracts are as follows:

· conversion of supply ships to hospital ships

· cutting a ship in half and installing a new section to lengthen the ship (see
figure 92.11)
· replacing segments of a ship that has run aground (see figure 92.12)
· complete rip-out, structural reconfiguration and outfitting of combat systems
· major remodelling of ship's interior or exterior (e.g., complete overhauls of
passenger cruise ships).

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Figure 92.11 Cutting a ship in half in order to install a new section

Newport News Shipbuilding

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Figure 92.12 Replacing the prow of a ship that ran aground

Newport News Shipbuilding
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Most major repairs and conversions require a large planning, engineering and
production effort. In many cases, a large quantity of steel work will need to be
accomplished (e.g., major cut-out of existing ship structure and installation of
new configurations). These projects can be divided into four major stages:
removal, building new structure, equipment installation and testing.
Subcontractors are required for most major and minor repairs and conversions.
The subcontractors provide expertise in certain areas and help to even the
workload in the shipyard.

Some of the work that subcontractors perform are as follows:

· support of ship repair

· major combat systems installations (technical)
· boiler re-tubing and rebuilding
· air compressor overhauls
· asbestos removal and disposal
· tank cleaning
· blasting and painting
· pump system overhauls
· small structural fabrication
· winch overhauls
· main steam system modifications
· system fabrications (i.e., piping, ventilation, foundations and so on).

As with new construction, all installed systems must be tested and operational
before the ship is returned to its owner. Testing requirements generally
originate from the contract, although other sources of testing requirements do
exist. The tests must be scheduled, tracked for proper completion and
monitored by the proper groups (shipyard internal quality, vessel operation,
government agencies, shipowners and so on). Once systems are in place and
properly tested, the area, compartment and/or system can be considered sold
to the ship (i.e., completed).

There are many similarities between new construction and repair processes.
The primary similarities are that they both use the application of essentially the
same manufacturing practices, processes, facilities and support shops. Ship
repair and new construction work require highly skilled labour because many of
the operations have limited potential for automation (especially ship repair).
Both require excellent planning, engineering and interdepartmental
communications. The repair process flow is generally as follows: estimate, plan
and engineer the job; rip-out work; refitting of steel structures; repair production;
test and trials; and deliver the ship. In many ways the ship repair process is
similar to shipbuilding, although new construction requires a greater amount of
organization because of the size of the workforce, size of the workload, number
of parts and the complexity of the communications (i.e., production plans and
schedules) surrounding the shipbuilding work flow.

Hazards and Precautions

Shipbuilding and repair is one of the most hazardous industries. Work must be
done in a variety of highly hazardous situations, such as confined spaces and
considerable heights. Much manual work is performed involving heavy
equipment and material. Since the work is so interrelated, the results of one
process may endanger personnel involved in another process. In addition, a
great portion of work is performed out-of-doors, and the effects of weather
extremes can cause or aggravate hazardous conditions. Additionally, a number
of chemicals, paints, solvents and coatings must be used, which may pose
significant risks to employees.

Health hazards
Chemical hazards which pose health risks to employees in shipyards include:

· dusts from abrasive blasting operations

· exposure to asbestos and mineral fibres in insulation work
· vapours and spray mists from paints, coatings, solvents and thinners
· fumes from various welding, burning, soldering and brazing operations
· exposure to gases used in various welding, burning and heating processes
· exposure to specific toxic chemicals in epoxy resins, organo-tin and copper
anti-fouling paints, lead paint, oils, greases, pigments and the like.

Physical hazards due to the manual nature of the work include:

· temperature and weather extremes associated with work performed out-of-

doors
· electrical hazards
· ergonomic-related problems caused by repetitive handling of large and bulky
materials
· ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
· noise and vibration
· oxygen deficiency potential and other confined space hazards associated with
tanks, double bottoms and so on
· falls and trips from work on the same level as well as work from great heights.

Preventive measures
Although shipbuilding and repair is a very hazardous industry, the risks to
personnel by these hazards can and should be minimized. The basis for hazard
reduction is a well-founded health and safety programme that is rooted in a
good partnership between management and the trade unions or employees.
There are a number of approaches that can be utilized to prevent or minimize
hazards in shipyards once they are identified. These approaches may be
broadly divided into several strategies.

Engineering controls are employed to eliminate or control hazards at their point

of generation. These controls are the most desirable of the various types since
they are most dependable:

· Substitution or elimination. Where possible, processes that produce hazards

or toxic materials should be eliminated or replaced with less hazardous
processes or materials. This is the most effective form of control. An example is
the use of non-carcinogenic materials instead of asbestos insulation. Another
example is the use of hydraulic lifting tables for handling heavy materials,
instead of manual lifting. Replacement of solvent-based paints with water-
based coatings is frequently possible. Automation or robotics can be used to
eliminate process hazards.
· Isolation. Processes that are not amenable to substitution or elimination can
sometimes be isolated from employees to minimize exposures. Frequently,
sources of high noise can be relocated to place more distance between workers
and the noise source, thus reducing exposure.
· Enclosure. Processes or personnel can sometimes be enclosed to eliminate or
reduce exposures. Operators of equipment can be provided enclosed booths to
minimize exposure to noise, heat, cold or even chemical hazards. Processes
may also be enclosed. Paint-spray booths and welding booths are examples of
process enclosure that reduce exposures to potentially toxic materials.
· Ventilation. Processes that produce toxic materials can be ventilated to
capture the materials at their point of generation. This technique is used
extensively in shipyards and boatyards, particularly to control welding fumes
and gases, paint vapours and the like. Many fans and blowers are located on
the decks of vessels and air is either exhausted from or blown into spaces to
reduce exposure to hazards. Frequently fans are used in the blowing mode to
direct fresh air into compartments to maintain acceptable oxygen levels.

Administrative controls are used to minimize exposures by administratively

limiting the time spent by personnel in potentially hazardous situations. This is
generally accomplished by rotating personnel from a relatively low hazard job to
a higher hazard one. Although the aggregate amount of person-exposure time
is not changed, exposure of each individual worker is reduced.

Administrative controls are not without their negative aspects. This technique
requires additional training since workers must know both jobs and more
workers are potentially exposed to a hazard. Also, since the number of
personnel exposed to hazards has doubled from a legal standpoint, potential
liabilities may be increased. However, administrative control can be an effective
method if properly applied.

Personal protective controls. Shipyards must rely heavily on the various forms
of personal protection. The nature of ship construction and repair does not lend
itself to traditional engineering approaches. Ships are very confined spaces with
limited access. A submarine under repair has 1 to 3 hatches that are .76 m in
diameter, through which people and equipment must pass. The amount of
ventilation tubing that can pass through is severely limited. Similarly, on large
ships work is performed deep within the vessel, and although some ventilation
may be smoked through the various levels to reach the desired operation, the
amount is limited. Further, the fans pushing or pulling air through the vent
tubing are generally located in fresh air, usually on a main deck, and they, too,
have somewhat limited capacity.

In addition, ship construction and repair is not performed in an assembly line,

but in separate work sites such that stationary engineering controls are
impractical. Further, a ship may be under repair for a few days, and the extent
to which engineering control may be utilized is again limited. Personal
protective equipment is used extensively in these situations.

In shops, more extensive use may be made of traditional engineering control

approaches. Most equipment and machinery in shops and assembly platens is
very amenable to traditional guarding, ventilation and other engineering
approaches. However, some personal protective equipment must be utilized in
these situations as well.
A discussion of the various applications of personal protective equipment
utilized in shipyards follows:

Welding, cutting and grinding. The basic process of constructing and repairing
ships involves cutting, shaping and joining steel and other metals. In the
process, metallic fumes, dusts and particulates are generated. Although
ventilation can sometimes be utilized, more frequently welders must utilize
respirators for protection from welding particulates and fumes. In addition, they
must employ appropriate eye protection for ultraviolet and infrared illumination
and other physical eye and face hazards. In order to provide protection from
sparks and other forms of molten metal, the welder must be protected by
welding gloves, long-sleeved clothing and other physical protection.

Abrasive blasting and painting. Much painting is performed in ship construction

and repair. In many cases, the paints and coatings are specified by the ship's
owner. Prior to painting, the equipment must be blasted with an abrasive to a
certain profile that ensures good adhesion and protection.

Abrasive blasting of small parts may be performed in a closed system such as a

glove box. However, most large components are abrasive blasted manually.
Some blasting is performed in the open air, some in large bays of a building or
shop designated for this purpose and some inside the vessels or vessel
sections themselves. In any case, personnel performing abrasive blasting must
use full-body protection, hearing protection and air-fed respiratory protection.
They must be provided with an adequate supply of breathable air (i.e., at least
Grade D breathing air).

In some countries the use of crystalline silica has been banned. Its use is
generally not recommended. If silica-containing materials are used in blasting,
preventive protective measures must be taken.

After abrasive blasting, materials must be quickly painted in order to prevent

“flash rusting” of the surface. Although mercury, arsenic and other very toxic
metals are no longer used in paints, paints used in shipyards generally contain
solvents as well as pigments such as zinc. Other paints are of the epoxy type.
Painters who apply these coatings must be protected. Most painters must use a
negative or positive pressure respirator for their protection, as well as full-body
coveralls, gloves, shoe covers and eye protection. Sometimes painting must be
performed in confined or enclosed spaces. In these cases, air-supplied
respiratory protection and full-body protection must be used, and there must be
an adequate, permit-requiring confined-spaces programme.

Overhead hazards. Shipyards have many cranes, and a large amount of

overhead work is performed. Hard-hat protection is generally required in all
production areas of shipyards.
Insulation work. Piping systems and other components must be insulated to
maintain component temperature and reduce heat in the ship's interior; in some
cases, insulation is needed for noise reduction. In ship repair, existing insulation
must be removed from piping to do repair work; in these cases, asbestos
material is frequently encountered. In new work, fibreglass and mineral fibres
are frequently used. In either case, appropriate respiratory protection and full-
body protection must be worn.

Noise sources. Work in shipyards is notoriously noisy. Most processes involve

working with metal; this typically produces noise levels above acceptable safe
limits. Not all noise sources can be controlled to safe levels by utilizing
engineering controls. Thus, personal protection must be used.

Foot hazards. Shipyards have a number of operations and processes that

present hazards to the feet. It is often difficult and impractical to segregate the
facility into foot hazard and non-foot hazard areas; safety shoes/boots are
typically required for the entire production area of shipyards.

Eye hazards. There are many potential sources of hazards to the eyes in
shipyards. Examples are various ultraviolet and infrared light hazards from
welding arcs, physical hazards from various metal working dusts and particles,
abrasive blasting grit, work with various pickling and metal baths, caustics and
paint sprays. Due to the ubiquitous nature of these hazards, safety glasses are
frequently required throughout the production areas of shipyards for practical
and administrative simplicity. Special eye protection is required for specific
individual processes.

Lead. Over the years, lead-based primers and coatings have been utilized
extensively in ship construction. Although lead-containing paints and coatings
are rarely used today, a significant amount of elemental lead is used in nuclear
shipyards as a radiation shielding material. In addition, ship repair work often
involves the removal of older coatings that frequently contain lead. In fact,
repair work requires a great deal of sensitivity and concern for materials that
have been applied or used previously. Work with lead requires full-body
protection including coveralls, gloves, hat, shoe covers and respiratory
protection.

Boat Building
In some ways boats can be thought of as relatively small ships in that many of
the processes used to construct and repair boats are very similar to those used
to construct and repair ships, only on a smaller scale. Generally, steel, wood
and composites are chosen for construction of boat hulls. Composites include,
in general, such materials as fibre-reinforced metals, fibre-reinforced cement,
reinforced concrete, fibre-reinforced plastics and glass-reinforced plastics
(GRPs). Development during the early 1950s of hand lay-up methods
employing cold-cure polyester resin with glass reinforcement led to a rapid
expansion of GRP boat construction, from 4% in the 1950s to over 80% in the
1980s and even higher currently.

In vessels over 40 m or so in length, steel rather than wood is the main

alternative to GRP. As hull size is reduced, the relative cost of steel
construction increases, becoming generally uncompetitive for hulls under 20 m
in length. The need for corrosion margin tends also to lead to excessive weight
in small steel boats. For vessels over 40 m, however, the low cost of heavy
welded steel construction is normally a decisive advantage. Unless imaginative
design, improved materials and automated fabrication can bring about a
substantial reduction in costs, however, glass- or fibre-reinforced plastics seem
unlikely to become competitive with steel for construction of ships over about 40
m in length except where special requirements exist (e.g., for transportation of
corrosive or cryogenic bulk cargo, where a nonmagnetic hull is required or
where substantial weight saving is necessary for performance reasons).

GRPs are now employed in a very wide range of boat hull applications including
speedboats, coastal and ocean-going yachts, work boats, pilot and passenger
launches and fishing boats. Its success in fishing boats, where wood has been
the traditional material, is attributable to:

· competitive first cost, particularly where many hulls are built to the same
design, enhanced by the increasing cost of wood and scarcity of skilled
woodworkers
· trouble-free performance and low maintenance costs resulting from leak-proof,
rot-proof qualities of GRP hulls, their resistance to marine boring organisms and
low cost of repair
· the ease with which complex shapes, which may be required for
hydrodynamic and structural purposes or for aesthetic reasons, can be
fabricated.

Fabrication methods
The most common form of construction for shells, decks and bulkheads in large
and small GRP hulls is single-skin laminate reinforced as necessary by
stiffeners. Various methods of fabrication are employed in the construction of
single-skin and sandwich hulls.

Contact moulding. By far the most common method of fabrication for single-skin
GRP hulls of all sizes is contact moulding in an open or negative mould using
cold-curing polyester resin and E-glass reinforcement.

The first step in the fabrication process is mould preparation. For hulls of small
and moderate size, moulds are usually fabricated in GRP, in which case a
positive plug, commonly of wooden construction finished in GRP, is first
assembled, whose external surface accurately defines the required hull shape.
Mould preparation is generally completed by wax polishing and application of a
film of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or equivalent release agent. Laminating is
usually started by application of pigmented gel coat of good-quality resin.
Laminating is then continued, before the gel coat has fully cured, using one of
the following processes:

· Spray up. Glass fibre rovings or reinforcements are sprayed simultaneously

with polyester resin, the latter being mixed with catalyst and accelerator at the
spray gun.
· Hand lay-up. Resin mixed with catalyst and accelerator is deposited liberally
on the gel coat or on a previous ply of impregnated reinforcement by brush,
roller-dispenser or spray gun.

The process outlined above can achieve efficient application of very heavy
reinforcement (fabric of up to 4,000 g/ has been used successfully, although
for large-scale production a fabric weight of 1,500 to 2,000 g/ has been
preferred), giving a rapid laminating rate with low labour costs. A similar
process can be applied for rapid lay-up of flat or nearly flat deck and bulkhead
panels. Batch production of certain 49 m hulls, including installation of decks
and bulkheads, has been achieved with a completion time of 10 weeks per hull.

Compression moulding. Compression moulding involves application of

pressure, possibly accompanied by heat, to the surface of an uncured laminate,
to increase fibre content and reduce voids by squeezing out excess resin and
air.

Vacuum bag moulding. This process, which may be regarded as an elaboration

of contact moulding, involves placing over the mould a flexible membrane,
separated from the uncured laminate by a film of PVA, polythene or equivalent
material, sealing the edges and evacuating the space under the membrane so
that the laminate is subjected to a pressure of up to l bar. Curing may be
speeded by placing the bagged component in an oven or employing a heated
mould.

Autoclave moulding. Higher pressures (e.g., 5 to 15 bar) combined with

elevated temperature, yielding increased fibre content and hence superior
mechanical properties, may be achieved by carrying out the bag moulding
process in an autoclave (pressurized oven).

Matched die moulding. The uncured moulding material, which in a large

component such as a boat hull is likely to be a sprayed premix of resin and
chopped-strand glass or a tailored preform of pre-impregnated glass fabric, is
compressed between matched positive and negative moulds, usually of metallic
construction, with application of heat if required. Because of the high first cost
of moulds, this process is likely to be economical only for large production runs
and is rarely used for boat hull fabrication.
Filament winding. Fabrication in this process is carried out by winding
reinforcing fibres, in the form of a continuous roving which may be impregnated
with resin just prior to winding (wet-winding) or may be pre-impregnated with
partially cured resin (dry-winding), onto a mandrel which defines the internal
geometry.

Sandwich construction. Sandwich hulls, decks and bulkheads may be

fabricated by contact moulding, using room-temperature curing polyester resin,
in much the same way as single-skin structures. The outer GRP skin is first laid
up on the negative mould. Strips of core material are embedded on a layer of
polyester or epoxy resin. Fabrication is then completed by laying up the internal
GRP skin.

Polyester and epoxy resins. Unsaturated polyester resins are by far the most
commonly used matrix materials for marine structural laminates. Their
effectiveness follows from their moderate cost, ease of use within hand lay-up
or spray-up fabrication processes and generally good performance in a marine
environment. Three main types are available:

1. Orthophthalic polyester, made by a combination of maleic and phthalic

anhydrides with a glycol (commonly propylene glycol), is the least expensive
and most widely used matrix material for small boat construction.
2. Isophthalic polyester, containing isophthalic acid in place of phthalic
anhydride, is more expensive, has somewhat superior mechanical properties
and water resistance and is commonly specified for higher-performance boat
construction and marine gel coats.
3. Bisphenol epoxy systems, in which phthalic acid or anhydride is partly or
completely replaced by bisphenol A, offers (at substantially higher cost) much
improved water and chemical resistance.

Safety and health hazards

Although many of the chemical, physical and biological hazards in shipbuilding
are common to boat building, a primary concern is exposure to various solvent
vapours and epoxy dusts from the boat manufacturing process. Uncontrolled
exposure to these hazards may produce central nervous system disorders, liver
and kidney damage, and sensitization reactions, respectively. The controls for
these potential hazards are essentially the same as those described previously
in the shipbuilding section-namely, engineering controls, administrative controls
and personal protective controls.