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TISSUE: PLANT AND ANIMAL

TISSUES
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Introduction
Group of cells positioned and designed to perform a particular function is called a tissue. An organ
is a structure made up of a collection of tissues that carry out specialized functions. For example,
in plants the root, stem and leaves are organs, whereas xylem and phloem are tissues. Similarly in
animals stomach, for example, is an organ that consists of tissues made of epithelial cells, gland
cells and muscle cells

Plant Tissues
In general, plant tissues are classified into two types namely: i. Meristems or Meristematic tissues
ii. Permanent tissues

Meristematic Tissues (Meristems)

Meristematic tissues are group of immature cells that are capable of undergoing cell division. In
plants, meristem is found in zones where growth can take place. Example: apex of stem, root, leaf
primordia, vascular cambium, cork cambium, etc.,
Characteristic features:
a) They are living cells.
b) Cells are small, oval, polygonal or round in shape.
c) They are thin walled with dense cytoplasm, large nuclei and small or no vacuoles.
d) They undergo mitotic cell division.
e) They do not store food materials.

A. Types of Meristems based on position

On the basis of their position in the plant, meristems are of three types: Apical meristem,
Intercalary meristem and Lateral meristem.

Apical meristem:
These are found at the apices or growing points of root and shoot and bring about increase in
length.

Intercalary meristem: It lies between the region of permanent tissues and is part of primary
meristem. It is found either at the base of leaf (e.g. pinus) or at the base of internodes (e.g.
grasses).
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Lateral Meristem: These are arranged parallel and causes the thickness of the plant part

B. Functions
Meristems are actively dividing tissues of the plant, that are responsible for primary (elongation)
and secondary (thickness) growth of the plant.

Permanent Tissues
Permanent tissues are those in which, growth has stopped either completely or for the time being.
At times, they become meristematic partially or wholly. Permanent tissues are of two types,
namely: simple tissue and complex tissue.

A. Simple Tissues
Simple tissues are homogeneous tissues composed of structurally and functionally similar cells.
eg., Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma: Parenchyma are simple permanent tissues composed of living cells. Parenchyma
cells are thin walled, oval, rounded or polygonal in shape with well-developed spaces among
them. In aquatic plants, parenchyma possesses intercellular air spaces, and is named as
Aerenchyma. When exposed to light, parenchyma cells may develop chloroplasts and are known
as Chlorenchyma.

In potato, parenchyma vacuoles are filled with starch. In apple, parenchyma stores sugar

Collenchyma: Collenchyma is a living tissue found beneath the epidermis. Cells are elongated with
unevenly thickened walls.
Cells have rectangular oblique or tapering ends and persistent protoplast. They possess thick
primary non-lignified walls. They provide mechanical support for growing organs.
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Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchyma consists of thick-walled cells which are often lignified. Sclerenchyma
cells are dead and do not possess living protoplasts at maturity. Sclerenchyma cells are grouped
into fibres and sclereids.
Fibres are elongated sclerenchymatous cells, usually with pointed ends. Their walls are lignified.
Fibres are abundantly found in many plants.

Sclereids are widely distributed in plant body. They are usually broad, may occur in single or in
groups. Sclereids are isodiametric, with liginified walls. Pits are prominent and seen along the
walls.

Lumen is filled with wall materials. Sclereids are also common in fruits and seeds

B. Complex tissues
Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells that work together as a unit. Complex
tissues consist of parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells. However, collenchymatous cells are not
present in such tissues. Common examples are xylem and phloem.

i. Xylem
Xylem is a conducting tissue which conducts water, mineral nutrients upward from root to leaves.
Xylem gives mechanical support to the plant body. Xylem is composed of: (i) xylem tracheids (ii)
xylem fibres (iii) xylem vessels and (iv) xylem parenchyma.

Xylem tracheids: These are elongated or tube-like dead cells with hard, thick and lignified walls.
Their ends are tapering, blunt or chisel-like and devoid of protoplast. They have large lumen
without any content. Their function is conduction of water and providing mechanical support to
the plant.
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Xylem fibres: These cells are elongated, lignified and pointed at both the ends. Xylem fibres
provide mechanical support to the plant.

Xylem vessels: These are long cylindrical, tube like structures with lignified walls and wide central
lumen. These cells are dead as these do not have protoplast. Their main function is to transport of
water and also to provide mechanical strength.

Xylem parenchyma: These are living and thin walled cells. The main function of xylem parenchyma
is to store starch and fatty substances.

ii. Phloem
Phloem is a complex tissue and consists of the following elements: Sieve elements, Companion
cells, Phloem fibres, and Phloem parenchyma.

Sieve elements: The conducting elements of phloem are collectively called as Sieve elements.
Sieve tubes are elongated, tube-like slender cells placed end to end. The main function of sieve
tubes is translocation of food, from leaves to the storage organs of the plants.

Companion cells: These are elongated cells attached to the lateral wall of the sieve tubes. A
companion cell may be equal in length to the accompanying sieve tube element or the mother cell
may be divided transversely forming a series of companion cells.

Phloem parenchyma: The phloem parenchyma are living cells which have cytoplasm and nucleus.
Their function is to store food materials

Phloem fibers: Sclerenchyma Tous cells associated with primary and secondary phloem are
commonly called phloem fibers. These cells are elongated, lignified and provide mechanical
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strength to the plant body

Animal Tissues

Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types on the basis of their structure and functions.
a. Epithelial tissue. b. Connective tissue
c. Muscular tissue d. Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissues
It is the simplest tissue composed of one or more layers of cells covering the external surface of
the body and internal organs. The epithelial tissue generally lacks blood vessels. The epithelium is
separated by the underlying connective tissue which provides it with nutrients. There are two
types of epithelial tissues. Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells resting on a
basement membrane. Compound epithelium is composed of several layers of cells. Only the cells
of the deepest layer rest on the basement membrane.

Functions of epithelial tissues

i. The skin which forms the outer covering of the body protects the underlying cells from drying,
injury and microbial infections.
ii. They help in absorption of water and nutrients.
iii. They are involved in elimination of waste products.
iv. Some epithelial tissues perform secretory function (Secretion of sweat, saliva, mucus and
enzymes).

A. Simple Epithelium
It is formed of single layer of cells. It forms a lining for the body cavities and ducts. Simple
epithelium is further divided into following types.

Squamous Epithelium: It is made up of thin, flat cells with prominent nuclei. These cells have
irregular boundaries and bind with neighbouring cells. The squamous epithelium is also known as
pavement membrane, which form delicate lining of the buccal cavity, alveoli of lungs, proximal
tubule of kidneys and covering of the skin and tongue. It protects the body from mechanical injury,
drying and invasion of germs.

Cuboidal Epithelium: It is composed of single layer of cubical cells. The nucleus is round and lies in
the centre. This tissue is present in the thyroid vesicles, salivary glands, sweat glands and exocrine
pancreas. It is also found in the intestine and tubular part of the nephron (kidney tubules) as
microvilli that increase the absorptive surface area. Their main function is secretion and
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absorption.

Columnar Epithelium: It is composed of a single layer of slender, elongated and pillar like cells.
Their nuclei are located at the base. It is found lining the stomach, gall bladder, bile duct, small
intestine, colon, oviducts and also forms the mucous membrane. They are mainly involved in
secretion and absorption

Ciliated Epithelium: Certain columnar cells bear numerous delicate hair like out growths called
cilia and are called ciliated epithelium. Their function is to move particles or mucus in a specific
direction over the epithelium. It is seen in the trachea of wind-pipe, bronchioles of respiratory
tract, kidney tubules and fallopian tubes of oviducts

Glandular Epithelium: Epithelial cells are often modified to form specialized gland cells which
secrete chemical substances at the epithelial surface. This lines the gastric glands, pancreatic
tubules and intestinal glands
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B. Compound Epithelium
It consists of more than one layer of cells and gives a stratified appearance. Hence, they are also
known as stratified epithelium. The main function of this epithelium is to give protection to the
underlying tissues against mechanical and chemical stress. They also cover the dry surface of the
skin, the moist surface of the buccal cavity and pharynx

Epithelial tissue in the skin functions as a water-proof membrane.

Connective Tissues
It is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissue. It provides structural frame work and
gives support to different tissues forming organs. It prevents the organs from getting displaced by
body movements.
The components of the connective tissue are the intercellular substance known as the matrix,
connective tissue cells and fibres
Connective tissue is classified as follows:
o Connective tissue proper (Areolar and Adipose tissue)
o Supportive connective tissue (Cartilage and Bone
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o Dense connective tissue (Tendons and Ligaments)

o Fluid connective tissue (Blood and Lymph)

i. Connective tissue proper:

Connective tissue proper consist of collagen fibres, elastin fibres and fibroblast cells.

Areolar tissue: It has cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance called
matrix. It takes the form of fine threads crossing each other in every direction leaving small spaces
called areolae. It joins skin to muscles, fills space inside organs and is found around muscles, blood
vessels and nerves. It helps in repair of tissues after injury and fixes skin to underlying muscles.
Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue is the aggregation of fat cells or adipocytes, spherical or oval in
shape. It serves as fat reservoir.

They are found in subcutaneous tissue, between internal organs around the heart and kidneys.
They act as shock absorbers around the kidneys and eye balls. They also regulate the body
temperature by acting as insulator.

ii. Supportive Connective Tissue:

The supporting or skeletal connective tissues forms the endoskeleton of the vertebrate body
which protect various organs and help in locomotion. The supportive tissues include cartilage and
bone.
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Cartilage: They are soft, semi-rigid, flexible and are less vascular in nature. The matrix is composed
of large cartilage cells called chondrocytes. These cells are present in fluid filled spaces known as
lacunae

Cartilage is present in the tip of the nose, external ear, end of long bones, trachea and larynx. It
provides support and flexibility to the body parts.

Bone : It is solid, rigid and strong, non-flexible skeletal connective tissue. The matrix of the bone is
rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres which gives the bone its strength. The matrix of the bone is
in the form of concentric rings called lamellae. The bone cells present in lacunae are called
osteocytes. They communicate with each other by a network of fine canals called canaliculi. The
hollow cavities of spaces are called marrow cavities filled with bone marrow. They provide shape
and structural framework to the body. Bones support and protect soft tissues and organs.

iii. Dense Connective Tissue:

It is a fibrous connective tissue densely packed with fibres and fibroblasts. It is the principal
component of tendons and ligaments.
Tendons: They are cord like, strong, structures that join skeletal muscles to bones. Tendons have
great strength and limited flexibility. They consist of parallel bundles of collagen fibres, between
which are present rows of fibroblasts

Ligaments: They are highly elastic structures and have great strength which connect bones to
bones. They contain very little matrix. They strengthen the joints and allow normal movement
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Sprain is caused by excessive pulling (stretching) of ligaments.

iv. Fluid connective tissue:

The blood and the lymph are the fluid connective tissues which link different parts of the body.
The cells of the connective tissue are loosely spaced and are embedded in an intercellular matrix.

a. Blood
Blood contains corpuscles which are red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes)
and platelets. In this fluid connective tissue, blood cells are present in a fluid matrix called plasma.
The plasma contains inorganic salts and organic substances.
It is a main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of nutrient substances. Red blood
corpuscles (Erythrocytes): The red blood corpuscles are circular, biconcave disc-like cells and lack
nucleus when mature (mammalian RBC). They contain a respiratory pigment called haemoglobin
which is involved in the transport of oxygen to tissues.
White blood corpuscles (Leucocytes): They are larger in size, contain distinct nucleus and are
colourless. They are capable of amoeboid movement and play an important role in body’s defense
mechanism. They engulf or destroy foreign bodies. WBC’s are of two types: Granulocytes and
Agranulocytes. Granulocytes have irregular shaped nuclei and cytoplasmic granules. They include
the neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. Agranulocytes lack cytoplasmic granules and include
the lymphocytes and monocytes.
Blood platelets: They are minute, anucleated, fragile fragments of giant bone marrow called mega
karyocytes. They play an important role in blood clotting mechanism.
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b. Lymph
Lymph is a colourless fluid filtered out of the blood capillaries. It consists of plasma and white
blood cells. It mainly helps in the exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluids.

Muscular Tissues
Muscular tissues are made of muscle cells and form the major part of contractile tissue. They are
composed of numerous myofibrils. Each muscle is made up of many long cylindrical fibres
arranged parallel to one another.

According to their structure, location and functions there are three main types of muscles: Skeletal
muscle (or) striated muscle, Smooth muscle (or) non-striated muscle and Cardiac muscle.

Skeletal muscle: These muscles are attached to the bones and are responsible for the body
movements and are called skeletal muscles. They work under our control and are also known as
voluntary muscles. The muscle fibres are elongated, cylindrical, unbranched with alternating dark
and light bands, giving them the striped or striated appearance. They possess many nuclei
(multinucleate). For example they occur in the biceps and triceps of arms and undergo rapid
contraction.

Smooth muscle: These muscles are spindle shaped with broad middle part and tapering ends.
There is a single centrally located nucleus (uninucleate). These fibrils do not bear any stripes or
striations and hence are called nonstriated. They are not under the control of our will and so are
called involuntary muscles. The walls of the internal organs such as the blood vessels, gastric
glands, intestinal villi and urinary bladder contain this type of smooth muscle.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue comprises of the nerve cells or neurons. They are the longest cells of the body.
Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous tissue. The elongated and slender
processes of the neurons are the nerve fibres. Each neuron consists of a cell body or cyton with
nucleus and cytoplasm. The dendrons are short and highly branched protoplasmic processes of
cyton. The axon is a single, long fibre like process that develops from the cyton and ends up with
fine terminal branches.
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They have the ability to receive stimuli from within or outside the body and send signals to
different parts of the body.
Nerve cells do not undergo cell division due to the absence of centrioles, but they are developed
from glial cells by neurogenesis