TECHNOLOGY OF FOOD PRODUCTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

Chapter 1 MEAT INDUSTRY

Definition
In Old French, "viande" meant "food," while in Latin, "vivenda" meant "that which serves
for life."
Meat is a food consisting of the muscle tissue of certain animals, including mammals, birds,
reptiles, and some fish. The term meat refers to the tissue, fibers, fat, nerves, blood, and bones
of an animal; offal is also considered meat.
"Offal": all edible parts of the fifth quarter of slaughtered animals. White offal refers to the
head, feet, and stomach.
Red offal includes: the heart, liver, tongue, brain, spleen, and lungs.

Red meat:
• Beef, veal (under 6 months old)
• sheep (lamb)
•horse
• Pork
*Goat

White meat:
• rabbit
•poultry
• farmed game
Breeding and sensory qualities
Animal rearing conditions have a strong impact on the sensory qualities of meat, such as color,
tenderness, flavor, and juiciness. The two key parameters are the level of feed intake and the
nature of the feed composition. Grazing management has a beneficial effect on color and
flavor.
Meat consumption and health
Meat consumption can have undesirable effects. As meat consumption has increased
significantly worldwide since World War II, the effects of diet on the risk of developing certain
diseases such as cancer and circulatory and heart diseases may only become apparent after
several years.
New risks have emerged with the industrialization of meat production: the composition of animal
feed has changed; livestock farming is increasingly "off the ground" and animals that used to eat
only grass are now fed feed that may contain meal, meat, and bones, a practice that has been
banned since 1990 in France and since 2000 in Europe. Fish, cereals, and soybeans are also
used, as are antibiotics, growth hormones, and various additives, depending on the country. In
addition, meat can bioaccumulate pollutants emitted by other agricultural or industrial activities
(pesticides, dioxins, etc.).
Meat production:
Meat production in Algeria:
Algeria produces 350,000 tons of red meat and 250,000 tons of meat annually.
white. That is a total of 600,000 tons per year for a national consumption requirement of
approximately 1 million tons, 25 million head of livestock, less than 2 million cows, 350,000
camels, 40,000 horses, and less than 5 million goats (Akkouche, 2014).
The red meat sector in Algeria is based mainly on cattle and sheep farming and, to a lesser
extent, on camel and goat farming, where production levels remain modest (Gredaal, 2004).
As a result, red meat production comes mainly from extensive sheep (56%) and cattle (34%)
farming (goat farming, 8%, and camel farming, 2%) (Nedjraoui, 2001). According to the
Chamber of Commerce and Industry (2004), red meat production (including uncontrolled
slaughter) was 300,460 tons in 2003, compared with 290,760 tons in 2002, representing
growth of 3.3%.
Cattle farming in Algeria is unable to meet the population's ever-increasing demand for
meat.
Meat production worldwide:
Total global meat production is reported by the FAO (2005) as approximately 258.935 million
tons. ([Link]
[Link])
In 2010, 293 million tons of meat were produced.
Nutritional properties
-Meat is rich in water (75%)
-protein (20 to 30% depending on the type of meat) and amino acids
-Red meat is also an important source of iron (1.5%)
-B vitamins, particularly vitamin B12
-minerals (1%)
-lipids (average 10.7 g/100 g)(3%). The fatty acids in meat are mainly saturated fatty acids, which
are generally recommended to be reduced
-sugars (1%)
The nutritional content of meat can vary depending on the species, the animal's diet, and the cut
of meat.
The natural composition of meat
Meat is composed of muscle fibers, adipose tissue (fat), and connective tissue (collagen) that
binds the muscle fibers together.
Meat quality:
The pursuit of quality is currently a fundamental concern for the agri-food industry.
For consumers, the quality of food can be defined on the basis of a number of characteristics
(Coibion, 2008).
• Nutritional quality,
• Hygienic quality,
• Organoleptic quality,
• Technological quality.

Nutritional quality:
This is the ability of a food to meet a person's nutritional (physiological) needs. This basic
characteristic concerns the nutrients contained in the food, such as proteins, fats, fiber, and
vitamins. (Touraille, 1994).
Hygienic quality:
Meat must be free (exempt) from agrochemical residues, heavy metals, pathogenic
microorganisms, and any other substances that are hazardous to health (Lameloise et al., 1984;
Coibion, 2008).
Organoleptic qualities:
The organoleptic characteristics of meat include
its sensory properties. The sensory quality of meat is determined by its color, flavor, juiciness, and
tenderness (Clinquart et al., 2000 and Hocquette et al., 2005).
In red meat, these characteristics vary depending on the genetic type, age, and sex of the
animal.
Furthermore, the biochemical and structural phenomena that occur during the first 24
hours post mortem have a significant influence on the subsequent organoleptic quality of
the meat, particularly its color and tenderness (Savell et al., 2005).
* Color:
The color of meat is the first quality characteristic perceived at the time of purchase.
Consumers consider it to be an indicator of the product's freshness (Clinquart et al., 2000;
Coibion, 2008).
They explain the color of the fresh product and how it changes during storage (Normand,
2005)
* Flavor:
The flavor of meat corresponds to "all the olfactory and gustatory impressions" experienced
when tasting it.
The various chemical compounds responsible for the flavor of meat are released
mainly during cooking (Lameloise et al., 1984).

*Tenderness:
Tenderness can be defined as the ease with which meat can be sliced and
chew, as opposed to tough meat that is difficult to chew (Touraille, 1994).
Tenderness is the most important quality criterion for consumers when eating meat. (Deansfield
and Zamora, 1997).

* Juiciness:
Juiciness, also known as succulence, characterizes the meat's ability to exude juices when
eaten. The key factor affecting juiciness is the muscle's water retention capacity.
Processing and preservation methods
-Refrigeration
The temperature of meat products must be lowered and maintained at 4°C or below, without
freezing the product.
The mandatory result of refrigeration is to delay the proliferation of pathogens and putrefactive
bacteria.
-Ambient temperature conditions
The temperature of the area or room in the establishment where the meat product is processed,
packaged, labeled, or handled must be adequate to ensure the preservation of the meat
product.
-Freezing
Freezing lowers the temperature of a meat product, causing water to change from a liquid to
a solid state (ice). Freezing prevents the growth of microorganisms present in meat products,
but it does not destroy them.
It is advisable to have storage freezers capable of maintaining a temperature of -18°C or
below.
Thawing
Thawing can be done in air or water. It is the operator's responsibility to establish
appropriate expiry dates, taking into account the time elapsed before the product was
initially frozen.
Frozen meat may be placed in cooking pots without first being thawed only if it is deemed to
be safe and unadulterated. Meat products that have been frozen and then thawed for sale in
a refrigerated state must be labeled and marked "thawed product."
Smoking (or smoking)
uses smoke produced by burning wood. This smoke contains substances that inhibit the growth
of mold and yeast on the surface of the product; light smoking can be
used during the storage period of dried meat, particularly in humid conditions
humid climatic conditions.
Smoking, combined with drying, alters the organoleptic qualities of the meat.
: it changes its color and aroma, and hardens its texture. According to the FAO, smoking, as a
preservative, should be considered an emergency measure when no other preservation
method can be used. This method can be used in wet weather or in a humid climate.
Salting and brining
A natural product that preserves meat.
The microorganisms that cause meat to rot need free water (not bound to solutes) to grow.
When salt comes into contact with the water in meat, it dissolves into Na+ and Cl- ions,
reducing the amount of water available to microorganisms to the point where they are
destroyed.
Salt only has a bacteriostatic effect at concentrations of 10% or higher, but this means that the
food must be desalted before cooking by washing it and immersing it in a large quantity of
drinking water, which is changed several times, for several hours or even a whole day.
Salting is done either dry or in brine, depending on the type of meat available and the desired
shelf life. For long-term storage, the meat should be firm and moderately fatty, preferably from
an older animal. For dry salting, the meat is rubbed with salt.
Brine is also the more or less strongly salted water bath in which meat is immersed. Some
leave it there permanently, others remove it after a few weeks to hang it up and dry it. It
seems that the humidity of the climate influences the choice between dry salting and brining.
Drying
is the oldest method of preservation. It is economical, as it does not consume energy and
requiring little equipment
Drying is particularly suitable for beef, but can also be used for camel, sheep, goat, and large
game meat.
When exposed to the open air, the meat undergoes a reduction in its water content through
evaporation in the peripheral area, followed by a constant migration of water from the deeper
layers to the periphery; this dehydration reduces the development of microorganisms.
Evaporation is highest on the first day of drying; it decreases steadily over the following days,
and a weight loss of 60 to 70% is observed after three or four days of drying. Certain vitamins
are degraded by ultraviolet radiation.
Heat preservation processes
Autoclave for the manufacture of canned goods. Modern heat treatment for food preservation
only began at the very end of the 18th century with the invention of Nicolas Appert, who
created canning, i.e., placing food in hermetically sealed jars (and later metal cans) and then
heating them for a certain amount of time at a certain temperature, with the containers being
placed in hot water or steam, or a mixture of both, in cooking tanks or autoclaves.

Up to 100°C, as only a certain number of microorganisms cannot withstand this

temperature, the product must then be stored in a cool place at a controlled temperature;
above 100°C, pasteurization or sterilization occurs; all microorganisms are considered to be
destroyed and the product can be stored without refrigeration.
Ingredients and additives used in charcuterie

1. Water and salt

-Water is added to a number of products in the form of brine, broth, ice, etc. to enable their
manufacture.
-Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the oldest ingredient used in meat processing. In the past, it played
a fundamental role as a preservative, even for non-dried products (preservation of fresh meat,
buried in salt). Currently, the preservative role of salt is limited to dried products only, and its
essential role is to provide the minimum salty taste required by consumers. The common
amounts of salt in charcuterie products are, approximately,
The following:
— dry sausage: 4.5%;
— cooked charcuterie: 1.8%. 3.
2- Curing agents: nitrates and nitrites
These are the two fundamental additives [saltpeter (mainly E 252)
and nitrite salt (E 250)] at the basis of the SALTING process. Their
important roles:
— formation of color
— development of the specific cured meat flavor
— microbial inhibition: blocking the germination of C. botulinum type A and B spores;
— reduction in the growth rates of enterobacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, etc.
3-Sugars
The sugars used in charcuterie and cured meats are:
— dextrose;
— sucrose;
— lactose.
Their main roles are:
— sweetening power to mask bitterness (mainly sucrose);
— fermentation power: formation of organic acids in fermented products such as
dry sausage.
— flavor reactions: Maillard reactions, non-enzymatic browning during heating
(cooking, sterilization);
— dry matter content: Lactose is an excellent "drying agent";
For each technology and depending on the quality of the product produced, the sugar content
is regulated [total soluble sugar (TSS) content: 0.5% to 2%, in principle].
Antioxidants
The most commonly used antioxidants are:
— ascorbic acid E 300 (L-ascorbic) (Figure 1);
— erythorbic acid E 315 (D-ascorbic acid) (Figure 1);
— sodium ascorbate E 301;
— sodium erythorbate E 316.
They play the following roles:
— antioxidant: by binding oxygen in the environment, they delay the oxidation of fats;
— reducing agents: they catalyze the reduction of NO2 to NO.
Binders used in charcuterie and cured meats
These are food products or their derivatives which, when added to meat paste, act as emulsifiers,
raising agents, gelling agents, thickening agents, hydrating agents, etc.
These binders belong to three main families: proteins, carbohydrates (polysaccharides), and lipids.
*Protein binders
- Blood proteins
Blood plasma obtained by centrifuging blood collected with an anticoagulant is
mainly used. It can be used fresh, frozen, or dried.
(increased viscosity of the medium). Their emulsifying and foaming properties are very
satisfactory.
-Milk proteins: Casein
Caseinates are emulsifiers used in canned foods. They are also used
in hot emulsions (a technique known as emulsion, in particular) and more generally when a
stability problem arises (high fat content, severe heat treatment, etc.).
-Whey proteins
They are also referred to as whey protein concentrates (WPC). Serum proteins are
mainly represented by β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin.
The most common product is dry whey, which has a very low protein content (10 to 12%) but
a high lactose content (70 to 75%). It is primarily considered as a source of dry matter rather
than a binding agent.
 -Plant proteins
*Soy
Soy isolates were most commonly used in traditional charcuterie. They can be considered
pure proteins (mainly globulins), with virtually no fiber.
*Gluten
Wheat is mainly used as a source of protein (10 to 15% in the grain, compared to 65 to 70%
starch). The proteins in flour (around 13%) can be divided into:
— cytoplasmic proteins (15 to 20%). These are albumins and globulins, which are
soluble proteins;
— reserve proteins (80 to 85%) or gluten. These are gliadins and glutenins, which are
insoluble proteins.
-Egg proteins
Eggs (mainly chicken eggs) are used in the form of
— whole eggs
— egg white;
— egg yolk.
and this in fresh, pasteurized, frozen, or dried form.
-Gelatins
Industrial gelatins are mainly made from pork bones and rinds.
Starch binders
*Native starches
Native starches have been used in charcuterie for a very long time in the production of
pâtés, terrines, white puddings, etc.
Traditionally, starches (derived from tubers, particularly potatoes) and flours (derived from
grains, particularly wheat) were used. The starch content of these products is greater than
75%.
*Modified starches (1404…….1450
Native starches lead to a "deficit" when environmental conditions change: acidification,
heating, freezing, etc. This has led to the creation of (chemical) modifications in native
starches. For example, we can distinguish between starches suitable for various heat
treatments, starches suitable for cold preparations, starches suitable for products stored at low
temperatures, etc.
Lipid derivatives (E 471, E 472)
These are derived from the hydrolysis of dietary fats: The fatty acids concerned are C14, C16,
and C18.
concerned are: C14, C16, C18.
Other agents
-Texturizing agents: thickeners, gelling agents, stabilizers
These are also macromolecules of polysaccharides extracted from plants, seeds, algae, etc.
These polysaccharides act on the medium through their thickening and/or gelling functions.

*alginates
which are thickeners used in a wide range of baked goods, jellies, and industrial gelatins;
* xanthan gum
which is soluble in cold liquids and extremely useful for adjusting the viscosity of sauces;
* carob flour
Polycondensates of galactose and mannose (1 galactose for every 4 mannose molecules).
Combined with xanthan gum, carob also helps to create a gel-like structure.
Organic acids and salts of these acids
Organic acids have always been used in their natural form: vinegar, lemon juice, etc. Currently,
acetic acid (E 260), lactic acid (E 270), citric acid (E 330), tartaric acid (E 334), and sodium and
potassium acetates and lactates (E 262, E 261, E 326, E 325) are commonly used.

-The use of organic acids improves the preservation of charcuterie products by slightly
lowering the pH of the environment.

-Lactates and acetates

alone or in combination, are frequently used. The effect obtained is a reduction in
growth rate of putrefactive and/or pathogenic flora (desired effect with regard to
Listeria monocytogenes in particular).

The desired effect is to:

— a slowdown in microbial development (Listeria monocytogenes, fecal coliforms,
total flora);
— a reduction in water activity Aw;
— better "water retention," resulting in minimal juice loss;
— more stable color, especially for fresh chopped products
Flavoring products
The flavor of charcuterie products results from biochemical reactions that occur during cooking
and from the ingredients/additives used, but also from the addition of specific aromatic plants
due to the incorporation of flavoring substances
— spices
originally from non-European countries, i.e., distant and often hot countries. Examples include:
peppers; chili peppers; nutmeg; cloves; cinnamon; coriander; caraway; cumin; saffron;
turmeric; green anise and star anise; ginger; etc.
Four spices play a major role: pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. In charcuterie, this blend
of four essential spices is often used; it is known as the "4 spice blend" (pepper: 50% –
nutmeg: 30% – cinnamon:
18% – cloves: 2%, for example).
Spices are generally highly contaminated (soil, water, etc.), which sometimes requires the use
of decontamination techniques such as ionization (radiation).

Currently, this practice is common and produces excellent microbiological

results without affecting the sensory characteristics of the treated spices.

— herbs, mainly of European origin, with a mild or warm but not hot flavor (unlike certain
spices such as chili peppers). These include: parsley, thyme, bay leaf, rosemary, savory,
mint, basil, sage, chives, marjoram, juniper, chervil, etc.;
— condiments
This category includes mustard, tomato paste or similar products, vinegar, lemon juice, pickles,
garlic, onions, shallots, tarragon, etc.
Preservatives
In addition to nitrates and nitrites, the following are mainly used in charcuterie:
— sorbic acid and sorbates (E 202, E 203);
— benzoic acid and its salts (Na+, K+, Ca++)
Natamycin (E 235), an antifungal agent isolated from Streptomyces natalensis cultures,
should also be mentioned. It is used to treat casings (mainly smoked products).
Packaging and wrapping
Packaging materials include cardboard boxes, materials
packaging, films, synthetic casings, nets, trays, bags, sacks, and any other material that may
come into contact with meat products, including gases used in modified atmosphere
packaging. Packaging materials must not transfer any undesirable substances, whether
chemical, physical, or microbiological; they must also protect the products sufficiently to
prevent contamination.

Physicochemical analyses of meat

It requires measurement of:
- pH, acidity, moisture content, NaCl content, and other minerals
- Fat content
-Collagen and other protein content
-Starch and other sugar content
- Nitrogen content (proteins)
-Phosphorus content
-Nitrite content
-Search for antibiotics
Chapter 3 FISH

Fish are aquatic vertebrates with gills that enable them to breathe, as well as fins. Their bodies
are often covered with scales. Fish are found in abundance in both fresh water (lakes, rivers)
and the sea.
Species can be found from the surface to the deepest depths of the oceans (ogre fish).
However, their distribution is very uneven, in areas where temperatures vary greatly.
They play a fundamental role for humans:
As food, fish is found all over the world, whether caught in the wild or farmed.
They are also exploited for fishing and are sometimes displayed in large public aquariums.
They play and have played a significant role in many cultures, as religious symbols or subjects
of stories, legends, books, and films, while also playing an important role in the ecosystem.
Anatomy of a ray-finned fish Diagram of Lampanyctodes hectoris
A Dorsal fin B Ray 1 Operculum
C Lateral line D Kidney 2 Lateral line
E Swim bladder F Weber's apparatus G 3 Dorsal fin
Inner ear H Brain 4 Soft or adipose fin
I Nostril L Eye socket 5 Caudal peduncle or tail
M Gills N Heart 6 Caudal fin
O Stomach P Gallbladder 7 Anal fin
Q Spleen R Gonads 8 Photophores
S Ventral or pelvic fin (in pairs) 9 Ventral or pelvic fin (per
T Spine U Anal fin V Caudal fin. pair)
10 Pectoral fin (per pair)
Phylogeny of fish
Fish do not constitute a monophyletic (polyphyletic) group,
meaning that they are not all descendants of a common ancestor.
Fish include:
•agnathans (lampreys and hagfish), which are a paraphyletic group;
•chondrichthyans (sharks and rays);
•actinostomes (coelacanths);
•dipneusts;
•Actinopterygii (more than 95% of fish).

This means that:

•all fish are craniates;
•not all fish are vertebrates (hagfish do not have vertebrae). There are just over
24,000 species of fish in total.
Food use
Algerian marine aquaculture is entirely dependent on imports for equipment and fish feed. This is not a
problem for freshwater fish farming, as the fish are fed plant-based feed, which is produced by domestic
[Link] problem lies mainly with feeding farmed marine fish (fish that feed on other fish).
FISH INDUSTRY
The fish and seafood processing industries aim to ensure maximum hygiene throughout
the entire processing process.

Fish Canning
The manufacturing process produces canned fish with qualities that intrinsic properties remain
close to those of fresh fish. This process combines very high-temperature heating to sterilize
the contents with airtight packaging.
which allows the product to be stored for several years. It does not require the addition of
preservatives. This results in a real closeness to the preserved product and respect for its
intrinsic qualities.
1– The fish received at the canneries are quickly
Washing headed, gutted, and cut up.

2 – Cleaning

3 – Trimming

4-Pre-cooking is carried out for the vast majority of products before packaging, to facilitate
control of water and fat content. Pre-cooking is also used to give a particular flavor or texture:
for example, sardines prepared in the traditional way are fried in oil before being canned.
5 – Filling and seasoning
Fish, whole, filleted, in steaks or pieces, are canned and then covered with a simple or prepared
covering medium. For example, water and salt for tuna "in brine," olive oil, sunflower oil, peanut
oil, etc. for sardines "in oil," or a whole range of sauces or marinades prepared for consumers'
enjoyment.
6 – Crimping – sealing:
Regardless of the type of packaging, it must be hermetically sealed. The boxes are closed
immediately after filling.
7 – Heat treatment
The hermetically sealed boxes are placed in a sterilizer, or autoclave, for a
heat treatment at temperatures above 100°C, carried out under pressure.
Heating destroys microorganisms. When fish is used raw, as is the case with tuna, heating also
serves to cook the food. Sterilization schedules are very precise and are established for each
type of fish and packaging. The current trend is to apply the shortest possible heating times at
very high temperatures in order to best preserve the organoleptic and nutritional qualities of the
products.
8-Cooling: final stage of the process. This stops the heat treatment and must be carried out as
quickly as possible to prevent the food from overcooking.