Formula Sheet Exam Quantum Mechanics

General basic equations/definitions

∂
∗ The momentum in 1 dimension is p̂x = −i~ and, in 3 dimensions, p̂ = −i~∇
∂x
∗ In 1 dimension, [x̂, p̂x ] = i~ and, in 3 dimensions, [x̂α , p̂β ] = i~δαβ
q q
∗ Given an operator Â, hÂi = hψ|Â|ψi and σA = h(Â − hÂi) i = hÂ2 i − hÂi2 .
2

dhÂi i ∂ Â
Time-dependence of expectation values: = h[Ĥ, Â]i + h i
dt ~ ∂t
[Â, B̂]
Heisenberg uncertainty relation: σA σB ≥ h i
2i

Harmonic oscillator

1
∗ The potential is V (x) = mω 2 x2
2
r  
mω i
∗ The raising and lowering operators are â± = x̂ ∓ p̂
2~ mω
 
1
Ĥ = ~ω â+ â− +
2
1
Ĥ|ni = ~ω(n + )|ni with n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
2
√ √
â+ |ni = n + 1|n + 1i and â− |ni = n|n − 1i

Angular Momentum

Orbital angular momentum

∗ L̂ = r̂ × p̂
L̂x = ŷ p̂z − ẑ p̂y , L̂y = ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z , L̂z = x̂p̂y − ŷ p̂x

[L̂x , L̂y ] = i~L̂z , [L̂z , L̂x ] = i~L̂y , [L̂y , L̂z ] = i~L̂x

[L̂2 , L̂x ] = 0, [L̂2 , L̂y ] = 0, [L̂2 , L̂z ] = 0

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 ∗ L̂± = L̂x ± iL̂y

[L̂z , L̂± ] = ±~L̂± , [L̂+ , L̂− ] = 2~L̂z

p
∗ L̂± |lmi = ~ l(l + 1) − m(m ± 1)|l, (m ± 1)i

L̂2 |lmi = ~2 l(l + 1) |lmi with l = 0, 1, 2, . . .

L̂z |lmi = ~m |lmi with m = −l, . . . , l.

Spin (Angular momentum)

The formulas are the same (substitute L with S) but

∗ Ŝ 2 |sms i = ~2 s(s + 1) |sms i with s = 1/2, 3/2, . . . (half-integer) for fermions

Ŝ 2 |sms i = ~2 s(s + 1) |sms i with s = 0, 1, . . . (integer) for bosons

∗ A particle has a definite value of s. For instance, an electron has s = 1/2.

Summation of two spin 1/2

∗ [Ŝ1,x , Ŝ1,y ] = i~Ŝ1,z , [Ŝ1,z , Ŝ1,x ] = i~Ŝ1,y , [Ŝ1,y , Ŝ1,z ] = i~Ŝ1,x

[Ŝ12 , Ŝ1,x ] = 0, [Ŝ12 , Ŝ1,y ] = 0, [Ŝ12 , Ŝ1,z ] = 0
Ŝ1,± = Ŝ1,x ± iŜ1,y
[Ŝ1,z , Ŝ1,± ] = ±~Ŝ1,± , [Ŝ1,+ , Ŝ1,− ] = 2~Ŝ1,z
p
Ŝ1,± |s1 m1 i = ~ s1 (s1 + 1) − m1 (m1 ± 1)|s1 , (m1 ± 1)i
The spin operators of particle 1 commute with those of particle 2: [Ŝ1,z , Ŝ2,x ] = 0 etc.
∗ S = S1 + S2 is also an angular momentum: [Ŝx , Ŝy ] = i~Ŝz etc.
Ŝ 2 |s, mi = ~2 s(s + 1)|s, mi with s = 0, 1 and m = −s, . . . , s
|s = 1, m = 1i = | 21 , 12 i and |s = 1, m = −1i = | − 21 , − 12 i
|s = 1, m = 0i = √1 (| 1 , − 1 i + | − 1 , 1 i) and |s = 0, m = 0i = √1 (| 1 , − 1 i − | − 1 , 1 i).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Magnetic interactions and Spin

∗ The Hamiltonian of a single spin in a magnetic field is Ĥ = −µ̂ · B with µ̂ the magnetic
moment of the particle given by
gq
µ̂ = Ŝ
2m

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 where q is the charge of the particle, m the mass, and g the spin g-factor, which are
different for different particles.
For an electron, g ≈ 2, q = −e, m = me while, for a proton, g ≈ 5.6, q = +e, and
m = mp ≈ 1800me .

∗ The matrix representation of the components of the Ŝ operator for a spin 1/2 particle,
expressed on the basis |±, zi of the eigenstates of Ŝz is:
     
~ 0 1 ~ 0 −i ~ 1 0
Sx = Sy = Sz =
2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1
~
The eigenvalues of Sx , Sy , and Sz are ± and the eigenvectors are:
2
       
1 1 1 ±1 1 0
χ(x) =√ , χ(y) =√ , (z)
χ+ = , χ(z) =
±
2 ±1 ±
2 i 0 − 1

3D & Spherical Coordinates

In spherical coordinates, the components of r are x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ,

and z = r cos θ.
Z Z ∞ Z π Z 2π
∗
hψ|χi = ψ (r)χ(r) dr = 2
r dr sin θ dθ dφ ψ ∗ (r, θ, φ)χ(r, θ, φ).
0 0 0

L̂2
 
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂
∇ = 2 r − 2 2
r ∂r ∂r ~r
1 ∂2
   
2 2 1 ∂ ∂
L̂ = −~ sin θ + .
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂φ2
∂
L̂z = −i~
∂φ
L̂2 Ylm (θ, φ) = ~2 l(l + 1) Ylm (θ, φ) with l = 0, 1, 2, . . .

L̂z Ylm (θ, φ) = ~m Ylm (θ, φ) with m = −l, . . . , l.

Hydrogen atom

1 e2
∗ The potential is V (r) = −
4π0 r
~2 1
∗ The energies are En = − (independent of l but with n = l + 1, l + 2, . . .)
2ma20 n2
4π0 ~2
with the Bohr radius a0 = ≈ 0.529 × 10−10 m
me e2

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 Approximation techniques

Variational principle

Given a system described by an Hamiltonian Ĥ and a state |Ψi described by a wave function
Ψ, the variational theorem tells us that
R ∗
hΨ|Ĥ|Ψi Ψ HΨ
= R ∗ ≥ E0 ,
hΨ|Ψi ΨΨ

where E0 is the ground-state energy of the Hamiltonian Ĥ.

Perturbation theory

(0)
∗ Given Ĥ0 |n(0) i = En |n(0) i and a perturbation Ĥ 0 , we write the states |ni and energies
En of the perturbed Hamiltonian Ĥ = Ĥ0 + Ĥ 0 as

|ni = |n(0) i + λ|n(1) i + λ2 |n(2) i + . . .

En = En(0) + λEn(1) + λ2 En(2) + . . .

λ is set to 1 at the end of the calculation.

∗ If the level n is non-degenerate, we have that
0
X Hkn
|ni = |n(0) i + (0) (0)
|k (0) i + . . .
k6=n En− Ek
X |H 0 |2
0 kn
En = En(0) + Hnn + (0) (0)
+ ...
k6=n En − Ek

0
where Hkn = hk (0) |Ĥ 0 |n(0) i.

Mathematical Formula’s

Simple trigonometric identities

∗ eiα = cos α + i sin α and eiα + e−iα = 2 cos α , eiα − e−iα = 2i sin α

∗ sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α and cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

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 Some integrals

Z
1 x
x sin(ax) d x = 2
sin(ax) − cos(ax)
a a
Z
1 x
2
x cos(ax) d x =
cos(ax) + sin(ax)
a a
For the next 5 integrals it is assumed that n ∈ N

Z ∞
xn e−x/a d x = n!an+1
0

Z ∞ √ (2n)!  a 2n+1
2n −x2 /a2
x e dx = π
0 n! 2
Z ∞
2 /a2 n! 2n+2
x2n+1 e−x dx = a
0 2
Z a Z a
2 nπx nπx a
sin ( )dx = cos2 ( )dx =
0 a 0 a 2
a a
a2
Z Z
nπx 2 nπx
x sin ( )dx = x cos2 ( )dx =
0 a 0 a 4
For the next six integrals it is assumed that n, m ∈ N and n 6= m

Z a
nπx mπx
sin( ) sin( )dx = 0
0 a a
a
2a2 mn((−1)n+m − 1)
Z
nπx mπx
x sin( ) sin( )dx =
0 a a (m2 − n2 )2 π 2
Z a
nπx mπx
sin( ) cos( )dx = 0
0 a a
Z a
nπx mπx
x sin( ) cos( ) d x = a2 πm(−1)m+1
0 a a
Z a
nπx mπx
cos( ) cos( )dx = 0
0 a a
a
a2 (m2 + n2 )((−1)n+m − 1)
Z
nπx mπx
x cos( ) cos( )dx =
0 a a (m2 − n2 )2 π 2