CHAPTER 4- SKIN & BODY MEMBRANES
Body Membranes and Their Types
Body membranes are vital structures that cover surfaces, line body cavities, and
form protective sheets around organs. They are primarily classified into two major
tissue types:
Epithelial membranes, which include:
o Cutaneous (skin) membrane
o Mucous membranes
o Serous membranes
Connective tissue membranes, exemplified by synovial membranes
Functions of Body Membranes
Body membranes perform several critical roles:
Line or cover body surfaces, providing a protective barrier against external
and internal environments.
Protect body surfaces from mechanical injury, pathogens, and chemical
damage.
Lubricate body surfaces, reducing friction between organs and tissues
during movement.
Assist in absorption and secretion, especially in mucous membranes that
line cavities open to the exterior.
Support immune defense and facilitate tissue repair.
Epithelial Membranes: Cutaneous, Mucous, and Serous
Cutaneous Membrane (Skin)
Description: The skin is a dry membrane that protects the body from
environmental damage.
Structure: Composed of two layers:
o Epidermis: Outer layer made of stratified squamous epithelium,
primarily keratinocytes filled with keratin.
o Dermis: Underlying dense fibrous connective tissue providing
strength and elasticity.
Function: Acts as a waterproof barrier, prevents pathogen entry, and
synthesizes vitamin D.
Mucous Membranes
Description: Moist membranes that line all body cavities open to the
exterior (e.g., respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive).
Function: Secrete mucus for lubrication and protection, and are adapted for
absorption or secretion.
Structure: Composed of epithelium (type varies with location) and a loose
connective tissue layer called lamina propria.
Serous Membranes
Description: Thin, moist membranes made of a single layer of simple
squamous epithelium supported by areolar connective tissue.
Function: Reduce friction between organs and cavity walls by secreting
serous fluid.
Specific Types:
o Peritoneum: Lines the abdominal cavity and covers abdominal
organs.
o Pleura: Surrounds the lungs.
o Pericardium: Encloses the heart.
Connective Tissue Membranes: Synovial Membranes
Description: Specialized connective tissue membranes that line joint
cavities, bursae, and tendon sheaths.
Function: Secrete lubricating synovial fluid to cushion joints and facilitate
smooth movement during muscle activity.
Structure: Composed exclusively of connective tissue, lacking epithelial
components.
Integumentary System Components and Functions
The largest organ system in the body, the integumentary system includes:
Skin (cutaneous membrane)
Sweat glands
Oil glands
Hair
Nails
Primary Functions:
Insulation and cushioning of internal organs.
Protection against mechanical, chemical, thermal, and UV damage.
Waterproof barrier preventing dehydration.
Regulation of body temperature through sweat and blood flow.
Excretion of waste products via sweat.
Vitamin D synthesis upon UV exposure.
Formation of a protective acid mantle that inhibits bacterial growth.
Skin Layers: Epidermis, Dermis, and Hypodermis
Epidermis
Function: Provides a protective, waterproof barrier; produces new skin
cells.
Composition: Multiple layers of keratinocytes, which produce keratin.
Layers (from superficial to deep):
o Stratum Corneum: Dead, keratinized cells forming a tough outer
layer.
o Stratum Lucidum: Present only in thick skin (palms, soles).
o Stratum Granulosum: Cells begin to die and harden, forming a
waterproof barrier.
o Stratum Spinosum: Provides skin strength and flexibility.
o Stratum Basale: Deepest layer; site of new keratinocyte and
melanocyte activity, producing melanin for pigmentation and UV
protection.
Renewal Cycle: Entire epidermis renews every 25-45 days.
Dermis
Function: Supports and nourishes the epidermis; contains blood vessels,
nerves, glands, and hair follicles.
Structure: Dense, irregular connective tissue rich in collagen and elastin
fibers.
Layers:
o Papillary Layer: Upper layer with dermal papillae that form
fingerprints; contains capillary loops nourishing the epidermis and
tactile receptors.
o Reticular Layer: Lower layer with blood vessels, sweat and oil
glands, deep pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles), and phagocytes.
Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Tissue)
Function: Anchors skin to underlying muscles and bones; insulates and
stores fat.
Composition: Mainly adipose tissue and loose connective tissue.
Skin Color and Its Determinants
Melanin: Primary pigment, produced by melanocytes; protects against UV
damage. Its amount and type vary genetically and with sun exposure.
Carotene: Orange-yellow pigment from vegetables, accumulates in the
stratum corneum and hypodermis.
Hemoglobin: Oxygen-carrying component of blood; imparts a pinkish hue
through the transparent epidermis.
Variations and Clinical Significance:
o Erythema: Redness from increased blood flow or inflammation.
o Pallor: Pale skin due to stress, anemia, or poor circulation.
o Jaundice: Yellowing from liver or gallbladder issues.
o Carotenemia: Orange tint from excess carotene.
o Bruises: Black-blue marks indicating blood escaped into tissues.
Skin Appendages and Their Functions
Sebaceous Glands
Produce: Oily sebum.
Function: Keep skin and hair soft, contain antibacterial chemicals.
Issues: Blocked glands cause acne; overactivity leads to conditions like
cradle cap.
Sweat Glands
Types:
o Eccrine: Open directly onto skin surface; regulate body temperature
via watery sweat.
o Apocrine: Open into hair follicles; active during stress or pain,
produce thicker secretions responsible for body odor.
Hair
Structure: Composed of keratinized epithelial cells; pigmented by
melanocytes.
Growth: From hair follicles rooted in the dermis; hair matrix in the bulb
produces new cells.
Function: Insulation, sensation, and protection; arrector pili muscles cause
"goosebumps" when cold or scared.
Nails
Structure: Made of keratin; grow from nail matrix beneath the skin.
Function: Protect fingertips and enhance sensation.
Common Skin Disorders and Infections
Fungal Infections: Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis) causes itchy, peeling skin.
Bacterial Infections: Boils and carbuncles involve inflamed hair follicles;
impetigo causes pink, blistered lesions.
Viral Infections: Cold sores (fever blisters) caused by herpesvirus.
Allergic Reactions: Contact dermatitis from chemicals causes itching and
redness.
Psoriasis: Chronic autoimmune condition with dry, silvery scales.
Other Conditions: Acne, milia, and dermatitis.
Burns: Classification and Consequences
First-degree: Damage to epidermis; skin appears red and swollen.
Second-degree: Damage extends into the upper dermis; causes redness,
pain, blistering.
Third-degree: Full-thickness burn destroying epidermis and dermis;
painless due to nerve damage; requires skin grafts.
Fourth-degree: Extends into muscles or bones; appears dry, leathery; may
need amputation.
Physiological effects: Protein denaturation, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance,
circulatory shock, risk of infection.
Skin Cancer: Types and Risk Factors
Most common skin cancers:
o Basal cell carcinoma: Least aggressive; arises from basal cells.
o Squamous cell carcinoma: From keratinocytes of the stratum
spinosum.
o Malignant melanoma: Arises from melanocytes; most deadly.
Risk factors: Excessive UV exposure from sunlight and tanning beds;
genetic predisposition.
Tumor Nature:
o Benign: Does not invade other tissues.
o Malignant: Invades and metastasizes to other parts.
Developmental and Aging Changes of Skin
Fetal development: Lanugo (downy hair) covers the body; vernix caseosa
(oily coating) protects skin at birth.
At birth: Small white spots (milia) are common.
Adolescence: Acne often appears.
Aging: Skin becomes thinner, less elastic, and less hydrated; loss of
elasticity leads to wrinkles; hair may thin or gray; increased risk of skin
cancer.
Other changes: Balding, graying, and increased susceptibility to infections
and skin conditions.