Chapter 3- Cells and Tissue

Study Guide
Cell Structure and Function
Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms, serving as the basic units of
structure and function. They carry out all necessary chemical activities to sustain life, including
metabolism, growth, and reproduction. The human body contains an estimated 50 to 100 trillion
cells, each specialized for particular roles. Despite their diversity, all cells share common
structural components: the plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane encases the cell, acting as a selective barrier that regulates the entry and
exit of substances. The nucleus serves as the control center, housing genetic material (DNA)
essential for protein synthesis and cell reproduction. The cytoplasm is a semifluid matrix where
organelles perform their specific functions, supporting the cell's metabolic activities.
Cells vary dramatically in size, shape, and function, reflecting their roles in the body. For
example, erythrocytes (red blood cells) are optimized for oxygen transport, while neurons are
specialized for transmitting electrical signals.
Plasma Membrane Composition and Role
The plasma membrane is a dynamic, lipid bilayer primarily composed
of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, and proteins. Its main function is to act as
a selectively permeable barrier, controlling what enters and exits the cell.
Composition:
 Phospholipids form a bilayer with hydrophilic (water-loving) heads facing outward and
inward, and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails facing each other, creating a hydrophobic
interior that blocks most water-soluble molecules.
 Cholesterol molecules are interspersed within the bilayer, providing stability and
flexibility.
 Glycolipids contain sugar groups and are located on one side of the membrane, playing
roles in blood type determination and immune responses.
 Proteins are embedded within or attached to the membrane, serving various functions
such as transport, signaling, and structural support.
Key Functions:
 Acts as a barrier to most water-soluble substances.
 Facilitates cell communication through receptor proteins.
  Supports cell adhesion via membrane junctions.
 Allows fluidity and flexibility necessary for membrane resealing and movement.
Membrane Proteins and Functions
Membrane proteins are classified as integral (transmembrane) because they are completely
embedded within the lipid bilayer and has the below roles for substances to pass through.
Types and Roles:
 Channel proteins: Form water-filled pores for small, water-soluble molecules to pass
through.
 Carrier proteins: Bind specific substances and change shape to transport them across the
membrane actively or passively.
 Receptor proteins: Detect chemical signals like neurotransmitters, initiating cellular
responses.
 Pumps: Use energy (ATP) to move ions against their concentration gradients,
e.g., Na+/K+ pumps.
These proteins enable selective transport and cell signaling, essential for maintaining
homeostasis.
Cell Membrane Junctions
Cells are interconnected through specialized junctions that facilitate adhesion, communication,
and barrier formation:
Types:
 Tight junctions: Seal adjacent cells tightly, preventing leakage of substances (e.g., in the
intestines).
 Anchoring junctions (Velcro): Strongly attach cells to each other, providing tissue
stability (e.g., in the stomach and bladder).
 Gap junctions: Create channels that allow direct communication and sharing of small
molecules between cells (e.g., in heart and smooth muscle tissues).
These junctions are vital for maintaining tissue integrity and coordination.
Organelles and Their Functions
Cell organelles are specialized structures that perform distinct tasks:
 Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouses, they generate ATP through aerobic
respiration.
  Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis, composed of rRNA and proteins; can be free or
attached to the rough ER.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes and processes proteins.

o Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids, steroids, and detoxifies harmful
substances.
 Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or internal use.
 Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for intracellular digestion.
 Peroxisomes: Break down toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide.
 Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and facilitates movement; composed of
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
 Centrioles: Involved in organizing microtubules during cell division.
Specialized Cell Types
The human body features over 200 cell types, each adapted for specific functions:
 Fibroblasts: Connect and secrete fibers.
 Erythrocytes: Transport oxygen.
 Epithelial cells: Cover and line organs, providing protection and absorption.
 Muscle cells: Contract to produce movement.
 Adipocytes: Store fats.
 White blood cells: Defend against pathogens.
 Neurons: Transmit electrical signals.
 Reproductive cells: Oocytes and sperm, essential for reproduction.
Each cell type exhibits structural features aligned with its role, such as microvilli in intestinal
cells for absorption or cilia in respiratory cells for moving mucus.
Membrane Transport Mechanisms
Cells regulate internal composition via membrane transport, which can be passive or active:
Passive Transport (No energy required):
 Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
  Facilitated diffusion: Uses carrier or channel proteins; transports larger or charged
molecules like glucose.
 Osmosis: Water movement through aquaporins, from areas of high to low water
concentration.
Active Transport (Requires ATP):
 Moves substances against their concentration gradient.
 Includes pumps like the Na+/K+ pump.
 Used for large molecules, ions, or when no passive pathways exist.
Cell Life Cycle and Division
Cells grow and divide through a cycle comprising:
 Interphase: The longest phase where the cell grows, performs metabolic activities, and
replicates DNA.
 Mitotic phase: The division process, including (PMAT):
o Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; spindle fibers form.

o Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

o Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

o Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform; chromosomes decondense.

 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides, forming two daughter cells.

This process ensures genetic material is accurately transmitted during cell reproduction.
Protein Synthesis
Cells produce proteins via a two-step process:
Transcription (DNA IS COPIED INTO MRNA):
 Occurs in the nucleus.
 Encodes genetic information from DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).
Translation (MRNA is used by ribosomes to make protein):
 Takes place in the cytoplasm.
 Ribosomes read mRNA sequences and assemble amino acids into proteins.
This process is fundamental for cell function, growth, and repair.
Body Tissue Types and Characteristics
The body contains four primary tissue types:
1. Epithelial Tissue
 Covers surfaces and lines cavities.
 Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, secretion.
 Arranged in single or multiple layers with shapes like squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.
 Examples: skin, lining of the digestive tract.
2. Connective Tissue
 Supports, binds, and protects tissues.
 Characteristics: extracellular matrix with fibers and ground substance.
 Types include bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, and
blood.
3. Muscle Tissue
 Produces movement through contraction.
 Types:
o Skeletal: Voluntary, striated.

o Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, with intercalated discs.

o Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, found in organs.

4. Nervous Tissue
 Transmits electrical impulses.
 Composed of neurons and supporting glial cells.
 Controls body functions and facilitates communication.
Tissue Repair and Regeneration
Tissues repair following injury through a sequence involving:
 Increased permeability of capillaries.
 Clot formation to wall off the injury ( clotting proteins seep in)
 Development of granulation tissue with new blood vessels and fibroblasts.
  Regeneration of surface epithelium or scar formation, depending on tissue type.
Regeneration capacity varies:
 Epithelial, connective tissue, and bone regenerate well.
 Muscle regenerates poorly, often forming scar tissue.
 Nervous tissue has minimal regenerative ability, with damage often permanent.
Cell and Tissue Aging
Aging involves a decline in tissue mass and regenerative capacity due to factors such as:
 Chemical damage from toxins and free radicals.
 Physical wear and tear.
 Genetic programming (biological clock).
As tissues age, repair becomes less efficient, and some tissues (muscle and nervous) lose their
ability to regenerate, leading to permanent damage and functional decline.