UNIT: MICROCONTROLLER TOPIC 2:

TECHNOLOGY PROCESS
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
a) Explain the need for process control
b) Explain process control terms
c) Explain block diagram of process control
d) Explain controller modes
e) Describe implementation of controllers
f) Explain functions of actuators
g) Distinguish between different types of actuators

INTRODUCTION
Process is defined as physical or chemical change of matter or it is energy conversion e.g
change in pressure, temperature, speed, electrical potential, e.t.c.
A process is a collection of vessels, pipes, fitting, gauges e.t.c, is built for the purpose of
producing a product or group of products.
Process control is the regulation or manipulation of variables influencing the conducts of a
process in such a way as to obtain a product of desired quality and quantity in an efficient
manner

NEED FOR PROCESS CONTROL

1. Process control enables automation.

Process control is commonly used for mass production. Due to its precise nature, it enables
the automation of industrial processes. With the proper information and equipment, a small
staff of operation personnel can operate even the most complex processes from a central
control room.
However, process control is not automation. Instead, the two work together to perform
efficiently. Without automation, plant operators have to physically monitor outputs to
determine the best settings to use with production equipment. By using automated sensors,
data can be collected and stores to make more effective decisions.

2. it’s a common process.

Since so many tools fall under the umbrella of process control, it’s a very common system
practiced across a variety of disciples. Process control applications can cover anything that
measures or controls the following variables;

 Analytical

 Connectors

 Flow

 Level

 Pressure

 Temperature

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 Vibration

3. When used properly, process control ensures safety.

Manipulating substances to produce a product is a very demanding (and potentially
hazardous) process. Even the smallest of changes can yield drastic differences in the end
results. Improper boiler pressure, for example, could affect the inflow of air and the outflow
of exhaust gases — threatening the safety of workers.
Proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence and many other factors must be carefully and
consistently controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials
and energy.

4. Process control is energy efficient.

Energy consumption in the industrial sector grows faster than in other sectors. When it
comes to manufacturing, factory managers want their equipment to deliver the highest
output with as little production cost as possible.
With process control, factory leaders can oversee production, measure how a plant is
working and make educated decisions based on that data. By adapting in response to this
information, a strategy can be put into place so equipment can be used at optimum levels.
This ensures consistency of quality — meaning less energy is wasted producing defective
products.

PROCESS CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES

i. The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the
plant output (controlled variable) at the desired value.

ii. Dead Band

The range through which an input can be varied without initiating a response.

iii. Dead Time

Dead time is the amount of time it takes for the process variable to start changing
after changing output as a control valve, variable frequency drive etc.

iv. Lag Time

Lag time is the amount of time after the dead time that the process variable takes to
move 63.3% of its final value after a step change in valve position.

v. Set point
It is an input variable which sets the desired value of the controlled variable

vi. Error signal

It is the algebraic difference between the real value and ideal value of the measured
signal. It is the quantity which when algebraically subtracted from the indicated signal
gives the ideal value.

vii. Controlled variable

It is the value which is sensed to originate a feedback signal. (Also known as the
process variable)

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

The figure shows the block diagram of close loop system or process control system. The
process control system consists of process or plant, feedback elements, error detector,
automatic controller, actuator or control element.

Block diagram – process control system

1. Plant or Process:
Plant or process is an important element of process control system in which variable
of process is to be controlled. The Process means some manufacturing sequence. It
has one variable or multivariable output.

2. Feedback element or Sensor:

The feedback element or sensor is the device which converts the output variable into
another suitable variable which can be acceptable by error detector.

3. Error detector:
The error detector compares between actual signal and reference input i.e. set point.
The error detector is subtracted summing points whose output is an error signal to
controller for comparison and for the corrective action.
E (t) = r (t) b (t)

4. Automatic controller:
The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a very low power
level, and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level i.e. means automatic controller
comprises an error detector and amplifier.

5. Actuator or control element:

The actuator is nothing but pneumatic or valve, a hydraulic motor or an electric
motor, which produces an input to the plant according to the control signal getting
from controller.

6. Transient response or natural response

Is the response of a system to a change from an equilibrium or a steady state. The
transient response is not necessarily tied to abrupt events but to any event that
affects the equilibrium of the system. The impulse response and step response are
transient responses to a specific input (an impulse and a step, respectively).

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MODES OF CONTROL

The mode of control is the manner in which a control system makes corrections relative to
an error that exists between the desired value (set point) of a controlled variable and its
actual value. The mode of control used for a specific application depends on the
characteristics of the process being controlled. For example, some processes can be
operated over a wide band, while others must be maintained very close to the set point.
Also, some processes change relatively slowly, while others change almost immediately.

Deviation is the difference between the setpoint of a process variable and its actual value.
This is a key term used when discussing various modes of control.

PID controllers are named after the Proportional, Integral and Derivative control modes they
have. They are used in most automatic process control applications in industry. PID
controllers can be used to regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level, and many other
industrial process variables.

Manual Control
Without automatic controllers, all regulation tasks will have to be done manually. For
example: To keep constant the temperature of water discharged from an industrial gas-fired
heater, an operator will have to watch a temperature gauge and adjust a fuel gas valve
accordingly (Figure 1). If the water temperature becomes too high for some reason, the
operator has to close the fuel gas valve a bit – just enough to bring the temperature back to
the desired value. If the water becomes too cold, he has to open the gas valve.

Figure 1. An operator doing manual control.

Feedback Control
The control task done by the operator is called feedback control, because the operator
changes the firing rate based on feedback that he gets from the process via the

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temperature gauge. Feedback control can be done manually as described here, but it is
commonly done automatically, as will be explained in the next section.

Control Loop
The operator, valve, process, and temperature gauge form a control loop. Any change the
operator makes to the gas valve affects the temperature which is fed back to the operator,
thereby closing the loop.

Automatic Control
To relieve our operator from the tedious task of manual control, we should automate the
control loop. This is done as follows:

 Install an electronic temperature measurement device.

 Automate the gas valve by adding an actuator (and perhaps a positioner) to it so that
it can be driven electronically.

 Install a controller (in this case a PID controller), and connect it to the electronic
temperature measurement and the automated control valve.

A PID controller has a Set Point (SP) that the operator can set to the desired temperature.
The Controller’s Output (CO) sets the position of the control valve. And the temperature
measurement, called the Process Variable (PV) gives the controller its much-needed
feedback. The process variable and controller output is commonly transmitted via 4 – 20mA
signals, or via digital commands on a Fieldbus.

When everything is up and running, the PID controller compares the process variable to its
set point and calculates the difference between the two signals, also called the Error (E).

Then, based on the Error and the PID controller’s tuning constants, the controller calculates
an appropriate controller output that opens the control valve to the right position for
keeping the temperature at the set point. If the temperature should rise above its set point,
the controller will reduce the valve position and vice versa.

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Figure 2. A PID controller doing automatic control.

PID controllers have three control modes:

 Proportional Control

 Integral Control

 Derivative Control

Each of the three modes reacts differently to the error. The amount of response produced by
each control mode is adjustable by changing the controller’s tuning settings.

1. Proportional Control Mode

The proportional control mode is in most cases the main driving force in a controller. It
changes the controller output in proportion to the error (Figure 3). If the error gets bigger,
the control action gets bigger. This makes a lot of sense, since more control action is needed
to correct large errors.

The adjustable setting for proportional control is called the Controller Gain (K c). A higher
controller gain will increase the amount of proportional control action for a given error. If the
controller gain is set too high the control loop will begin oscillating and become unstable. If
the controller gain is set too low, it will not respond adequately to disturbances or set point
changes.

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Figure 3. Proportional control action.

Adjusting the controller gain setting actually influences the integral and derivative control
modes too. That is why this parameter is called controller gain and not proportional gain.

Proportional Band
While most controllers use controller gain (Kc) as the proportional setting, some controllers
use Proportional Band (PB), which is expressed in percent. Table 1 shows the relationship
between Kc and PB.

Controller Gain Proportional Band

(Kc) (PB) %
0.1 1000
0.2 500
0.5 200
1 100
2 50
5 20
10 10

Table 1. Relationship between Kc and PB

Proportional-only Controller
Proportional controllers are simple to understand and easy to tune. The controller output is
simply the output of the proportional control mode, plus a bias. The bias is needed so that
the controller can maintain an output (say at 50%) while there is no error (set point =
process variable).

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Figure 4. A proportional-only controller algorithm.

The use of proportional control alone has a large drawback – offset. Offset is a sustained
error that cannot be eliminated by proportional control alone. For example, let’s consider
controlling the water level in the tank in with a proportional-only controller. As long as the
flow out of the tank remains constant, the level will remain at its set point.

Figure 5. Level control, with operator causing a disturbance.

But, if the operator should increase the flow out of the tank, the tank level will begin to
decrease due to the imbalance between inflow and outflow. While the tank level decreases,
the error increases and our proportional controller increases the controller output
proportional to this error. Consequently, the valve controlling the flow into the tank opens
wider and more water flows into the tank.

As the level continues to decrease, the valve continues to open until it gets to a point where
the inflow again matches the outflow. At this point the tank level (and error) will remain
constant. Because the error remains constant our P-controller will keep its output constant

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and the control valve will hold its position. The system now remains at balance, but the tank
level remains below its set point. This residual sustained error is called Offset.

Figure 6 shows the effect of a sudden decrease in fuel gas pressure to the process heater
described earlier, and the response of a p-only controller. The decrease in fuel-gas pressure
reduces the firing rate and the heater outlet temperature decreases. This creates and error
to which the controller responds. However, a new balance-point between control action and
error is found and the temperature offset is not eliminated by the proportional controller.

Figure 6. A proportional controller’s response to a disturbance.

Under proportional-only control, the offset will remain until the operator manually changes
the bias on the controller’s output to remove the offset. This is typically done by putting the
controller in manual mode, changing its output manually until the error is zero, and then
putting it back in automatic control. It is said that the operator manually “Resets” the
controller.

Integral Control Mode

The need for manual reset as described above led to the development of automatic reset or
the Integral Control Mode, as we know it today. As long as there is an error present (process
variable not at set point), the integral control mode will continuously increment or
decrement the controller’s output to reduce the error. Given enough time, integral action
will drive the controller output far enough to reduce the error to zero.

If the error is large, the integral mode will increment/decrement the controller output fast, if
the error is small, the changes will be slower. For a given error, the speed of the integral
action is set by the controller’s integral time setting (T I). A large value of TI (long integral
time) results in a slow integral action, and a small value of T I (short integral time) results in
a fast-integral action (Figure 7). If the integral time is set too long, the controller will be
sluggish, if it is set too short, the control loop will oscillate and become unstable. In the

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figure, TS is the control algorithm’s execution interval, sometimes called sampling time or
scan time.

Figure 7. Integral control action and an integral-only controller’s equation.

Most controllers use integral time in minutes as the unit of measure for integral control, but
some others use integral time in seconds, integral gain in repeats per minute or repeats per
second. Table 2 compares the different integral units of measure.

Integral Time Integral Gain

Minute Seco Rep / Rep /

s nds Min Sec
0.05 3 20 0.333
0.1 6 10 0.167
0.2 12 5 0.0833
0.5 30 2 0.0333
1 60 1 0.0167
2 120 0.5 0.00833
5 300 0.2 0.00333

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10 600 0.1 0.00167
20 1200 0.05 0.00083

Table 2. Units of the integral control mode.

Proportional + Integral Controller

Commonly called the PI controller, its controller output is made up of the sum of the
proportional and integral control actions (Figure 8).

Figure 8. The PI controller algorithm.

Figure 9 shows how the integral mode continues to increment the controller’s output to
bring the heater outlet temperature back to its set point. Compared to Figure 6, it is clear
how Integral control eliminates offset.

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Figure 9. A PI controller’s response to a disturbance.

Derivative Control Mode

The third control mode in a PID controller is derivative. Derivative control is rarely used in
controlling processes, but it is used often in motion control. For process control, it is not
absolutely required, is very sensitive to measurement noise and it makes trial-and-error
tuning more difficult. Nevertheless, using the derivative control mode of a controller can
make a control loop respond a little faster than with PI control alone.

The derivative control mode produces an output based on the rate of change of the error
(Figure 10). Derivative mode is sometimes called Rate. The derivative mode produces more
control action if the error changes at a faster rate. If there is no change in the error, the
derivative action is zero. The derivative mode has an adjustable setting called Derivative
Time (TD). The larger the derivative time setting, the more derivative action is produced. A
derivative time setting of zero effectively turns off this mode. If the derivative time is set too
long, oscillations will occur and the control loop will run unstable. Again, T S is the controller’s
execution interval.

Figure 10. Derivative control action.

Two units of measure are used for the derivative setting of a controller: minutes and
seconds.

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Proportional + Integral + Derivative Controller
Commonly called the PID controller, its controller output is made up of the sum of the
proportional, integral, and derivative control actions (Figure 11). There are other
configurations too.

Figure 11. The Standard (Noninteractive) PID controller algorithm.

PID control provides more control action sooner than what is possible with P or PI control.
This reduces the effect of a disturbance, and shortens the time it takes for the level to
return to its set point.

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Figure 12. A PID controller’s response to a disturbance.

Figure 13 compares the recovery under P, PI, and PID control of the process heater outlet
temperature (PV) after a sudden change in fuel gas pressure as described above.

Figure 13. The result of a P, PI, and PID controllers’ response to a disturbance.

ACTUATORS

An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a

mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".

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An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively
low energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even
human power. Its main energy source may be an electric current, hydraulic fluid
pressure, or pneumatic pressure. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds
by converting the signal's energy into mechanical motion.

An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The
control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based
(e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input

Remote operation of a valve is easily managed by one of the four types of actuators.

By themselves, valves cannot control a process. Manual valves require an operator to

position them to control a process variable. Valves that must be operated remotely and
automatically require special devices to move them. These devices are called actuators.
Actuators may be pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric solenoids or motors.

1. Pneumatic Actuators

A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in Figure 35. It operates by a

combination of force created by air and spring force. The actuator positions a control valve
by transmitting its motion through the stem.

A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper
chamber receives supply air through an opening in the top of the housing.

The bottom chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops
in the upper chamber. Finally, a local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the
position of the valve.

The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper chamber.
This results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the
spring forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully
open. As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins
to overcome the opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to move
downward and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm
will continue to move downward and compress the spring until the control valve is fully
closed. Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will begin to force the
diaphragm upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held
constant at some value between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an
intermediate position. Therefore, the valve can be positioned anywhere between fully open
and fully closed in response to changes in supply air pressure.

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Figure 35 Pneumatic Actuator: Air-to-Close/Spring to Open

A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It
does this by comparing the actuators demanded position with the control valves actual
position. The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control signal
from a controller to the positioner. The pneumatic actuator in Figure 35 is shown in Figure 36
with a controller and positioner added.

The controller generates an output signal that represents the demanded position. This
signal is sent to the positioner. Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for
the control signal, a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air
vent connection, and a feedback linkage. Internally, it contains an intricate network of
electrical transducers, air lines, valves, linkages, and necessary adjustments. Other
positioners may also provide controls for local valve positioning and gauges to indicate
supply air pressure and control air pressure (for pneumatic controllers). From an operator’s
viewpoint, a description of complex internal workings of a positioner is not needed.
Therefore, this discussion will be limited to inputs to and outputs from the positioner.

In Figure 36, the controller responds to a deviation of a controlled variable from setpoint and
varies the control output signal accordingly to correct the deviation. The control output
signal is sent to the positioner, which responds by increasing or decreasing the supply air to
the actuator. Positioning of the actuator and control valve is fed back to the positioner
through the feedback linkage. When the valve has reached the position demanded by the

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controller, the positioner stops the change in supply air pressure and holds the valve at the
new position. This, in turn, corrects the controlled variables deviation from setpoint.

Figure 36 Pneumatic Actuator with Controller and Positioner

For example, as the control signal increases, a valve inside the positioner admits more
supply air to the actuator. As a result, the control valve moves downward. The linkage
transmits the valve position information back to the positioner. This forms a small internal
feedback loop for the actuator. When the valve reaches the position that correlates to the
control signal, the linkage stops supply air flow to the actuator. This causes the actuator to

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stop. On the other hand, if the control signal decreases, another valve inside the positioner
opens and allows the supply air pressure to decrease by venting the supply air. This causes
the valve to move upward and open.

When the valve has opened to the proper position, the positioner stops venting air from the
actuator and stops movement of the control valve.

An important safety feature is provided by the spring in an actuator. It can be designed to

position a control valve in a safe position if a loss of supply air occurs. On a loss of supply
air, the actuator in Figure 36 will fail open. This type of arrangement is referred to as "air-to-
close, spring-to-open" or simply "fail-open." Some valves fail in the closed position. This
type of actuator is referred to as "air-to-open, spring-to-close" or "fail-closed." This "fail-
safe" concept is an important consideration in nuclear facility design.

2. Hydraulic Actuators

Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick and accurate
response, as they do not require a large amount of motive force. However, when a large
amount of force is required to operate a valve (for example, the main steam system valves),
hydraulic actuators are normally used. Although hydraulic actuators come in many designs,
piston types are most common.

A typical piston-type hydraulic actuator is shown in Figure 37. It consists of a cylinder,

piston, spring, hydraulic supply and return line, and stem. The piston slides vertically inside
the cylinder and separates the cylinder in to two chambers. The upper chamber contains
the spring and the lower chamber contains hydraulic oil.

Figure 37 Hydraulic Actuator

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The hydraulic supply and return line is connected to the lower chamber and allows hydraulic
fluid to flow to and from the lower chamber of the actuator. The stem transmits the motion
of the piston to a valve.

Initially, with no hydraulic fluid pressure, the spring force holds the valve in the closed
position. As fluid enters the lower chamber, pressure in the chamber increases. This
pressure results in a force on the bottom of the piston opposite to the force caused by the
spring. When the hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins to move
upward, the spring compresses, and the valve begins to open. As the hydraulic pressure
increases, the valve continues to open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is drained from the
cylinder, the hydraulic force becomes less than the spring force, the piston moves
downward, and the valve closes. By regulating amount of oil supplied or drained from the
actuator, the valve can be positioned between fully open and fully closed.

The principles of operation of a hydraulic actuator are like those of the pneumatic actuator.
Each uses some motive force to overcome spring force to move the valve. Also, hydraulic
actuators can be designed to fail-open or fail-closed to provide a fail-safe feature.

3. Electric Solenoid Actuators

A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown in Figure 38. It consists of a coil, armature,
spring, and stem.

Figure 38 Electric Solenoid Actuator

The coil is connected to an external current supply. The spring rests on the armature to force
it downward. The armature moves vertically inside the coil and transmits its motion through
the stem to the valve.

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When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the coil. The magnetic
field attracts the armature toward the center of the coil. As the armature moves upward, the
spring collapses and the valve opens. When the circuit is opened and current stops flowing
to the coil, the magnetic field collapses. This allows the spring to expand and shut the valve.

A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation. Also, they are much easier
to install than pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. However, solenoid actuators have two
disadvantages. First, they have only two positions: fully open and fully closed. Second, they
dont produce much force, so they usually only operate relatively small valves.

4. Electric Motor Actuators

Electric motor actuators vary widely in their design and applications. Some electric motor
actuators are designed to operate in only two positions (fully open or fully closed). Other
electric motors can be positioned between the two positions. A typical electric motor
actuator is shown in Figure 39. Its major parts include an electric motor, clutch and gear box
assembly, manual handwheel, and stem connected to a valve.

Figure 39 Electric Motor Actuator

The motor moves the stem through the gear assembly. The motor reverses its rotation to
either open or close the valve. The clutch and clutch lever disconnects the electric motor
from the gear assembly and allows the valve to be operated manually with the handwheel.

Most electric motor actuators are equipped with limit switches, torque limiters, or both.
Limit switches de-energize the electric motor when the valve has reached a specific
position. Torque limiters de-energize the electric motor when the amount of turning force
has reached a specified value. The turning force normally is greatest when the valve

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reaches the fully open or fully closed position. This feature can also prevent damage to the
actuator or valve if the valve binds in an intermediate position.

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