Topic 5 – Energy Flow, Ecosystems, and the Environment

1. Describe the reaction of photosynthesis with equation - as requiring energy from

light to split apart the strong bonds in water molecules, storing the hydrogen in a
fuel (glucose) by combining it with carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen into the
atmosphere.

ANS: 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 6𝑂6 + 6𝐻2𝑂

■ The energy from light is used to break the strong H-O bonds in the water
molecules.
■ The hydrogen which is released is combined with carbon dioxide to form a fuel
for the cells (glucose).
■ Oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a waste product of this process.

2. Explain the hydrolysis of ATP provides an immediate supply of energy for

biological processes.

■ The breakdown of ATP into ADP and phosphate is a reversible reaction.

■ ATP can be synthesized (made) from ADP and a phosphate group.
■ This synthesis reaction is also catalyzed by the enzyme ATPase.
■ The energy needed to drive the synthesis of ATP usually comes from catabolic
(breakdown) reactions or redox reactions.
■ As a result, an ATP molecule provides an immediate supply of energy for your
cells, ready for use when needed.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 3. Explain the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis - cyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation.

■ CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION:

■ Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only photosystem I (PSI) and drives the

production of ATP.
■ When light hits a chlorophyll molecule in PSI, a light-excited electron leaves
the molecule.
■ It is collected by an electron acceptor and transferred directly along an
electron transport chain to produce ATP.
■ When an electron returns to the chlorophyll molecule in PSI, it can then be
excited in the same way again

■ NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION:

■ Both PS1 and PS2 are involved,

■ When photons hit PS2, electrons are excited to higher energy levels until they
gain sufficient energy and leave the Photosystem,
■ Electrons are accepted by an electron acceptor and transported along the
electron transport chain
■ This drives the production of one molecule of ATP
■ This electron is then used to replenish the lost electron in PS1

■ In PS1 the electron that was excited by photons is accepted by NADP

■ Meanwhile, Photolysis occurs, the breakdown of water molecules releases H+
ions and OH- ions
■ Electrons released from Photolysis are used to replenish the unstable
PS2
■ H+ ions then combine with NADP to form Reduced NADP
■ Which is then transported to the Calvin Cycle.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 4. Describe the role of sunlight/water in photosynthesis. (photolysis of water)

Electrons excited by photons, flow from chlorophyll to NADPH and are used to reduce
CO2 in the Calvin cycle producing monosaccharides.
In these light reactions, water is split (photolysis) to satisfy the electron debt
in the chlorophyll molecules in photosystem II. These electrons flow through
non-cyclic photophosphorylation to produce ATP and NADPH which drive the Calvin
cycle.
Oxygen is produced in the photolysis of the light reactions and escapes to the
atmosphere.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 5. Describe the light-independent reactions (carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle,
the role of GP, GALP, RuBP, RUBISCO, the synthesis of new biological molecules such
as polysaccharides, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids)

In the first step of the Calvin cycle, carbon dioxide from the air combines with the
5-carbon compound ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in the chloroplasts. The carbon
dioxide is said to be fixed, so this process is known as carbon fixation.

Glucose is the end product of the Calvin Cycle, This glucose may be converted into
disaccharides such as sucrose for transport around the plant; into polysaccharides
such as starch for energy storage; and into cellulose, for structural support

The GALP that enters cellular respiration is used to provide energy in the form of
ATP for the functions of the cell. Compounds from these pathways are also used as
the building blocks of amino acids. The molecules combine with nitrates from the
soil. GALP can also continue around the Calvin cycle and, in that case, it can
combine with phosphates from the soil to produce nucleic acids.

Some of the GALP that enters the cellular respiration pathways is converted into a
chemical called acetyl coenzyme A. This compound is then used to synthesize the
fatty acids needed for the production of phospholipids for membranes, and lipids
needed for storage and other functions within the plant.

GP is also part of this process, but GALP is regarded as the main molecule leading
to the synthesis of all the other molecules needed by the plant

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 6. The structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis.

Grana:
Thylakoids provide a large surface area for light absorption and light-dependent
reactions
Chlorophyll molecules are grouped together to form the photosystems which are
embedded in the membrane along with the electron carriers
Folds in the thylakoid membranes allow photosystems and electron carriers to be
close together.

Thylakoid spaces:
Collect hydrogen ions for Chemiosmosis
The low volume enables the hydrogen ion gradient to be generated rapidly.
Hydrogen ions flow back to the Stroma down the electrochemical gradient through the
ATP synthase channel.

The Stroma:
Contains rubisco for carboxylation of RUBP

7. What is meant by the terms absorption spectrum and action spectrum?

absorption spectrum: a graph showing the amount of light absorbed by a pigment

against the wavelength of the light

action spectrum: a graph demonstrating the rate of photosynthesis against the

wavelength of light

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 8. Chloroplast pigments can be separated using chromatography and the pigments are
identified using Rf values.

9. The relationship between gross primary productivity (GPP), net primary

productivity (NPP), and plant respiration (calculate net primary productivity).

Gross primary productivity (GPP) in plants, is the rate at which light from the Sun
catalyzes the production of new plant material,

Net primary productivity (NPP) is the material produced by photosynthesis and stored
as new plant body tissues; that is,

NPP GPP-R (where R = losses due to respiration)

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 10. How to calculate the efficiency of biomass and energy transfers between trophic
levels.

We divide the amount from the higher trophic level by the amount from the lower
trophic level and multiply by one hundred.

11. What is meant by the terms population, community, habitat, ecosystem, and niche
(How does the concept of niche account for the distribution and abundance of
organisms in a habitat)?

■ A habitat is a place where an organism lives

■ A population is a group of organisms of the same species, living and breeding
together in a habitat.
■ A community is all the populations of all the different species of organisms
living in a habitat at any one time.
■ The niche of an organism can be described as the role of the organism in the
community, or its way of life.

No two species can occupy the same niche; interspecific competition excludes one
species or the niche is divided according to adaptations.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 12. The numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat are controlled by biotic
and abiotic factors.

The biodiversity and distribution of organisms within an ecosystem are due to both
abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors.
Abiotic factors are non-living variables that can influence where organisms can
live.

The values of the abiotic factors in an ecosystem affect the range of species that
are found. This is because the individuals in each species are adapted to occupy
particular niches.

Examples of abiotic factors include

● light intensity
● temperature
● soil pH
● soil moisture

Biotic factors are interactions associated with living organisms. They can also
influence the distribution of organisms in an ecosystem.

● competition for environmental resources

● grazing - too little leads to dominant plants outcompeting other species, too
much reduces species numbers overall. Both decrease biodiversity
● predation - a reduction in predators can lead to an increase in prey. High
numbers of prey can lead to overgrazing, which can reduce biodiversity
● disease
● food availability

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 13. The stages of succession from colonization to the formation of a climax
community.

Stage of Primary succession

Stage 1: bare rock is exposed due to some type of disturbance such as a retreating
glacier or volcano eruption

Stage 2: Pioneer species like lichens and mosses, establish themselves on the rock
substrate

Stage 3: Pioneer species die and decay providing soil and nutrients for other plant
species like shrubs and small trees

Stage 4: Small and large trees begin to grow and the community reaches equilibrium,
this results in a climax community.

Stage of Secondary succession

Stage 1: organisms are driven away or killed by some type of disturbance, like a
forest fire, leaving behind only the soil

Stage 2: Pioneer species like grass and weeds begin to grow from the soil roots and
seeds left over may also begin to grow again

Stage 3: Some Pioneer species die and are replaced or out-competed by other species
like shrubs and trees

Stage 4: Small and large trees begin to grow and the community reaches equilibrium
or balance, this results in the climax community.

14. Different types of evidence for climate change and its causes, including records
of carbon dioxide levels, temperature records, pollen in peat bogs, and
dendrochronology, recognizing correlations and causal relationships.

Temperature records:

Antarctic and Greenland ice cores are often used as a source of temperature proxies,
scientists drill deep down into the ice and then analyze the air trapped in
different layers, this provides us with records that go back thousands of years. The
oxygen isotope in melted ice (the proportion of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16) reflects the
air temperature at the time the ice layer was formed we can use cores to measure the
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Dendrochronology:

Another temperature proxy is dendrochronology

Dendrochronology is the dating of past events using tree-ring growth, it's the
method of figuring out how old a tree is using tree rings. The thickness of the tree
rings depends on the climate when the ring is formed.

When the climate is warmer, the tree ring is thicker, by working out the thickness
of the tree rings scientists can easily identify the climate change, most trees
produce one ring every year. Every year trees produce a new layer of xylem vessels
by the division of cells underneath the bark. The diameter of the new xylem vessels
varies according to the seasons when they produce different widths of the vessels
creating a pattern that can be seen when the trees are cut down. Instead of cutting,
a core sample can be taken.

The ring cannot give any precise dates, but strong clue about past climates.

However, growth is dependent on many factors including the amount of sunshine,

temperature, carbon dioxide levels, and amount of rainfall
So evidence for dendrochronology may not be accurate. One way to check the
reliability is by comparing the results from different places. If the rings are
similar then the climate was generally similar, not just in that area.

Pollen in peat bogs

Pollen is often preserved in peat bogs, (acidic Wetland areas) it is very acidic and
anaerobic. which prevents bacteria from decomposing organic material, so pollen
grain mass spores, and even plant tissue are preserved in peat. Scientists know the
climate of the different plant species when they find preserved from similar plants.
This indicates that the climate is similar when pollen is produced.

Scientists can take cores from Peat bogs and extract pollen grains from the
different age layers and identify the species, plant species vary with the climate
so the preserved pollen will vary as the climate varies.

Plant growth rate depends on the prevailing conditions and varies widely, so
evidence from undisturbed peat bogs can give us a clear and unbroken record of the
climate

Correlation is simply a relationship where action A relates to Action B but one

event does not necessarily cause the other event to happen

Causation is when one thing causes another

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 15. The causes of anthropogenic climate change, include the role of greenhouse gases
in the greenhouse effect.

The causes of anthropogenic climate changes are:

1. Increased levels of greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere and

2. Destruction of carbon sinks such as rainforests.

Role of greenhouse gasses in the greenhouse effect: when radiation from the sun such
as infrared reaches the earth, some are reflected back into space by the atmosphere,
and some are absorbed by the atmosphere. Infrared reaches earth in short wavelengths
but is reflected in longer wavelengths. This radiation is absorbed and radiated back
by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Increasing levels of carbon dioxide
increase the amount of heat retained, causing the atmosphere and earth’s surface to
heat up. This is called the greenhouse effect.

16. How the carbon cycle can be applied to methods to reduce atmospheric levels of
carbon dioxide.

● Use of carbon sinks-carbon removed from the atmosphere and is locked there
● can be bodies of living organisms or rocks
● use of carbon neutral material
● use of biofuels
● use of renewable energy resources
● reforestation

17. Data can be extrapolated to make predictions and these are used in models of
future climate change ( models for climate change have limitations ).

We can extrapolate the data on greenhouse gasses and use them in models to make
predictions about what will happen to temperature and other aspects of global
warming in the future. However, there are some limitations to such models:

1) limited data
2) limited knowledge of how the climate system works.
3) limitation in computing resources
4) failure to include all factors affecting climate.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 18. The effects of climate change on plants and animals (changing rainfall patterns
and changes in seasonal cycles, distribution of species, development, and
lifecycles).

Changes in climate act as a selection pressure for plants and animals. The changes
also result in extinction as plants and animals cannot quickly adapt to the changes
around them.

Changes in rainfall pattern:

Rainfall patterns change across the globe as monsoon rain becomes heavier in some
[Link] results in devastating floods and also severe repeated droughts all
across the country.

Distribution of species, development, and life cycles:

A change in climate could affect the area in which many organisms live. Most animals
extend to the southern while becoming extinct in northern areas.
The spread of diseases becomes more vulnerable as animals move from place to place.

Climate change also leads to

1. Allopatric speciation (population becomes physically or geographically

isolated due to global warming such as a rise in sea level)

AND,

2. Sympatric speciation (organisms become reproductively isolated due to

mechanical, behavioral, or seasonal changes).

When a population becomes separated, gene flow between them ceases. Since the two
groups are in their unique ecosystem and experience different selection pressure,
they adapt to their environment over time and can eventually become different from
each other.

19. Describe the effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme activity and its impact
on plants, animals, and microorganisms, to include Q 10.

The temperature has an effect on enzyme activity which in turn affects the whole
organism. There is an optimum temperature for many enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Increasing temperature affects different processes including growth and
reproduction. Increasing temperature beyond the optimum temperature causes enzymes
to denature so the reaction rate falls. The effect of temperature on the rate of any
reaction can be expressed as the temperature coefficient (Q 10). Q 10 for any
reaction between 0 degrees and 40 degrees is 2.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 20. How evolution (a change in allele frequency) can come about through gene
mutation and natural selection.

■ Evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over

generations.
■ Genetic variations underlie these changes.
■ Genetic variations can arise from gene mutation or gene recombination.
■ These variations often alter gene activity or protein function, which can
introduce different traits in an organism.
■ Due to selection pressure, only advantageous alleles will survive and
reproduce, the genetic variation is more likely to be passed to the next
generation (a process known as natural selection).
■ Over time, as generations of individuals with traits continue to reproduce,
the advantageous trait becomes increasingly common in a population.

21. how isolation reduces gene flow between populations, leading to allopatric and
sympatric speciation.

When a population is separated because of a geographic feature, like distance, a

canyon, a river, or a mountain range, those two subgroups of the population are no
longer able to reproduce together.

When populations become separated, gene flow between them ceases. Over time, the
populations may become genetically different in response to the natural selection
imposed by their different environments.

Since the two groups are in their own unique ecosystems and each experiences unique
selection pressures, they will adapt to their environment over time and can
eventually become very different from each other.

Once the two populations are unable to breed and produce fertile offspring, they are
considered to belong to different species and there is reproductive isolation
between them. The longer the two groups are geographically isolated, the more likely
speciation such as allopatric and sympatric will occur.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 22. Scientific conclusions about controversial issues, such as what actions should
be taken to reduce climate change or the degree to which humans are affecting
climate change.

Actions that should be taken include

■ Controlling the use of fossil fuels (because this will reduce the carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere)
■ Making industrial processes and car engines cleaner
■ Less polluting
■ Increasing awareness to use sustainable resources
■ Using biofuels
■ Reforestation (because more plants will absorb more carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis)
■ Reduce the number of cattle being farmed (as this will reduce the methane
being released into the atmosphere)

23. Describe reforestation and the use of sustainable resources, including biofuels

Reforestation is the replanting of trees in an area where trees have been lost.
Sustainable resources are resources that can be grown and used in a sustainable way.
Biofuels are sustainable and can replace fossil fuels. Some biofuels include
biodiesel, hydrogen, ethanol, and methane.

BIODIESEL: can be obtained from crops such as soybeans and palm seeds. Products of
biodiesel are carbon dioxide and water.
HYDROGEN: can be obtained from the catalysis of methane from fossil deposits. The
product is water vapor
ETHANOL: which can be obtained from fermented sugars from crops such as sugarcane.
Products of ethanol are carbon dioxide and water vapor.
METHANOL: can be extracted from fossil fuels deposits. Products are carbon dioxide
and water vapor.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Topic 6 – Microbiology, Immunity, and Forensics

1. The principles and techniques involved in culturing microorganisms, using an

aseptic technique.

Culturing microorganisms involves a number of steps.

First, we need to decide which microorganisms we want to culture and obtain a

culture of them. Then we need to provide the microorganisms with the right nutrients
in order to grow. Most microorganisms require a good source of carbon and nitrogen
as well as specific minerals.

We can use a nutrient medium in the form of nutrient broth, where the nutrients are
in liquid form for a liquid culture in a flask or test tube, or in a solid form,
usually nutrient agar. Agar is a jelly extracted from seaweed. It is very useful
because, although it solidifies as jelly at 50*C, it does not melt again until it is
heated to 90*C. Both solid and liquid media must be kept sterile until ready for
use.

The majority of microorganisms grow on or in a medium enriched with good protein

sources such as blood, yeast extract, or meat extract. Producing a nutrient medium
with very specific ingredients provides a selective medium. A selective medium is a
growth medium for microorganisms containing a very specific mixture of nutrients so
only a particular type of microorganism will grow on it.

Selective media are important in identifying particular mutant strains of

microorganisms and antibiotic resistance. Selective media are also useful for
identifying microorganisms that have been genetically modified.

One way in which bacteria can be grown in the laboratory:

■ An agar medium containing glucose medium must be prepared.

■ Inoculate a strain of bacteria using a cotton swab dipped in a sample and
swiped across the agar.
■ Cover the petri dish and use tape to secure the lid.
■ Ensure to leave gaps in the tape to allow oxygen to pass through and prevent
the growth of other strains of anaerobic bacteria.
■ Incubate the petri dish at 30 degrees centigrade for 24 hours after which, a
culture of bacteria will be produced

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 2. The different methods of measuring the growth of microorganisms, such as cell
counts, dilution plating, and optical methods (turbidity)

CELL COUNT BY HAEMOCYTOMETER:

A hemocytometer is a specialized thick microscope slide with a rectangular chamber

that holds a standard volume of liquid of 0. 1 mm3. The chamber is engraved (marked)
with a grid of lines. It was originally designed for counting blood cells.

We dilute the sample of nutrient broth by half with an equal volume of trypan blue,
a dye that stains dead cells blue so we can identify and count only the living
cells.

Then we can view and count the cells using a microscope

Each corner of the hemocytometer grid has a square divided into 16 smaller squares.
The number of cells in each of these four sets of 16 squares is usually counted and
the mean is calculated. The hemocytometer is calibrated so that the number of
bacterial or fungal cells in one set of 16 squares is equal to the number of cells
104 per cm3 of broth.

In this way, we can calculate the number of microorganisms in a standard volume of

broth.

OPTICAL METHOD (TURBIDITY):

An alternative way of measuring the number of cells in a culture is turbidimetry, a

specialized form of colorimetry. As the number of bacterial cells in a culture
increases, it becomes increasingly turbid (cloudy). As a solution becomes more
turbid. it absorbs more light, so less light can pass through it. A colorimeter
measures how much light passes through a sample and thus shows how much light is
absorbed. This indirectly indicates how many microorganisms are present.

We can produce a calibration curve by growing a control culture and taking samples
at regular time intervals. We can measure each sample's turbidity and count the
cells using a hemocytometer for each sample. This gives us a relationship between
the turbidity of the culture and the number of bacterial cells present. We can then
use this calibration curve to measure the number of microorganisms simply using
turbidimetry. For example, we might want to investigate the effect of different
conditions on the growth rate of the microorganism.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 DILUTION PLATING:

Dilution plating is a method used to obtain a culture plate with a countable number
of bacterial colonies. Total viable cell counts are a measure e of the number of
cells that are alive in a specific volume of culture.
This technique is based on the idea that each of the colonies on the agar plate has
grown from a single, viable microorganism on the plate. So, if we have two bacterial
colonies after culturing, we can presume that there are two initial living bacteria
on the plate.

However, a solid mass of microbial growth is often present after culturing and it is
not possible to identify the individual colonies. We can solve this problem by
diluting the original culture in stages until we reach a point when we can count the
colonies. We can calculate the total viable cell count for the original sample by
multiplying the number of colonies by the dilution factor.

3. The different phases of a bacterial growth curve (lag phase, exponential

phase, stationary phase, and death phase) and calculate exponential growth
rate constants.

Bacteria growth cycles in a growth curve consist of four phases: lag,

exponential(log), stationary, and death.

Lag Phase: The lag phase is when bacteria are adapting to their new environment and
are not reproducing at their maximum rate. The bacterial cells increase in size, but
no cell division occurs in this phase.

Exponential (log) phase: The log phase is when the rate of reproduction is close to
or at its theoretical maximum, repeatedly doubling in a given time period. When
cells divide by binary fission, they double in numbers after each generation. The
metabolic activity of bacteria is high in this phase. In this growth phase,
antibiotics and disinfects are most effective as they target bacterial cell walls.

Stationary Phase: The stationary phase is when the total growth rate is zero as the
number of new cells formed by binary fission equals the number of cells dying.
Eventually, the growth rate decreases as nutrients become depleted and waste
products accumulate. This results in no overall population. Under unfavorable
conditions, competition for nutrients increases, and cells become less metabolically
active.

Death Phase: The death phase is when reproduction has almost stopped and the death
rate of cells increases as nutrients become less available and waste products
increase, the number of cells dying continues to rise. In the death phase, the
number of living cells decreases exponentially and population growth experiences a
sharp decline.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Exponential Growth Rate Constants:

4. Compare the structure of bacteria and viruses (nucleic acid, capsid structure,
and envelope) with reference to the Ebola virus, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV),
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and lambda phage (λ phage).

Comparison between the structure of bacteria and viruses:

Bacteria:
1. A bacteria has a cell wall containing peptidoglycan
2. Cell surface membrane similar to eukaryotic cells
3. A nucleoid
4. 70s ribosomes which are the site of photosynthesis
5. Some bacteria have a capsule or slime layer
6. Some bacteria have pili which are threadlike projections
7. Some bacteria have mesosomes which are internal extensions of membranes
and may be the site of cellular respiration
8. Some bacteria have additional rings of DNA called plasmids

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Viruses:
1. Viruses have a protein coat or capsid which has simple repeating units
of protein known as capsomeres
2. Nucleic acid acts as genetic material and this can be DNA or RNA.
3. Specific proteins (antigens) known as virus attachment particles (VAPs)
4. Some viruses have a lipid envelope produced from the host cells and it
makes it easier for them to pass from cell to cell.

5. Viruses are of 3 types-

a) DNA VIRUSES have DNA as their genetic material which acts directly as a
template for both the new DNA and for mRNA needed to induce the synthesis of
viral proteins. Examples are the smallpox virus and lambda phage virus.

b) RNA VIRUSES have RNA as their genetic material and they are much more likely
to mutate than DNA viruses. Examples include the tobacco mosaic virus(TMV) and
the Ebola virus.

c) RETROVIRUSES are a special type of RNA virus. They are responsible for making
DNA molecules corresponding to the viral genome. An example is Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

5. What is meant by the terms lytic and latency?

LYTIC: The lytic cycle involves the virus taking control of the host cell and using
it to produce more virus cells killing the host cell in the process

LATENCY: The ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant within the cell

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 6. Details of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and
Ebola virus.

HOW TB IS DEVELOPED? WHAT ARE THE DIAGNOSIS, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENT

TB is commonly caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, which is spread

by droplet infection.

In the primary infection, the bacteria which have been inhaled into the lungs
multiply slowly often causing no symptoms.

People who have a healthy immune system allow inflammatory response to work forming
a tubercule that contains dead bacteria and macrophages.

After about 8 weeks, the immune system controls the bacteria, the inflammation
disappears and lung tissue heals.

However, the bacteria which survive produce a thick waxy outer layer which protects
them from the enzymes of macrophages. Bacteria with an effective coating remain deep
in the tubercule in the lung, dormant or growing slowly weakening the person. This
bacteria then cause active TB.

TB can be diagnosed by X-ray which shows opaque areas and thick-walled cavities in
the lung
Typical symptoms of TB include fever, night sweats, weight loss, and loss of
appetite.
The main treatment of TB is to use antibiotics for months.

For the first 2 months, a mixture of different antibiotics is used which destroys
rapidly reproducing bacteria. For the next four to seven months, a mixture of two
more antibiotics is used.

Extra- people living or working in crowded conditions, people who are ill or
malnourished, and people living with HIV are more vulnerable to TB.

HOW HIV CAUSES AIDS? WHAT IS THE TREATMENT?

HIV is a retrovirus and attaches itself to the T helper cells. Once it enters the T
helper cells, it controls the host DNA and replicates. The host T helper cell is
destroyed when a new virus leaves the cell. At the same time, other cells of the
immune system called T killer cells recognize and destroy some of the heavily
infected T helper cells. These processes cause a large decrease in the number of T
helper cells. As a result, the immune system cannot fight over other pathogens.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 THE STAGES OF HIV:

STAGE 1: ACUTE HIV SYNDROME- In the first few weeks after infection, some people
feel unwell. Symptoms include fever, headaches, tiredness, and swollen glands. Some
people infected with HIV have no symptoms. Between 3 and 12 weeks after infection,
HIV antibodies appear in the blood, making the person test HIV positive. This will
happen even if they have not felt ill.

STAGE 2: THE ASYMPTOMATIC OR CHRONIC STAGE- Once the infection is established all
symptoms disappear. During the asymptomatic stage, the virus replicates, infecting
the T helper cells, but it is kept under control by the T killer cells. As this
stage progresses, secondary infections develop because the immune system is unable
to deal with the situation.

STAGE 3: SYMPTOMATIC DISEASE- Eventually the number of viruses attacking the immune
system becomes so great that the whole immune system starts to fail. The normal T
helper cell count falls from 500 to 200 per mm3 of blood. Patients begin to suffer
HIV-related symptoms, including weight loss. This rapidly progresses to the final
stage.

STAGE 4: ADVANCED AIDS- As T helper cell numbers fall, severe symptoms such as
dementia as brain cells become infected and serious infections such as TB occur. The
final stage of AIDS is always death.

AIDS is an incurable disease but various control methods are being investigated.
Such as

1)celibacy
2)only having one sexual partner
3)using condoms to prevent the spread of the virus
4)using clean needles if injecting drugs
5)spreading awareness
6)using drug therapy.

EBOLA: Ebola virus is a disease caused by infection with the Ebola virus.

It is a serious often fatal disease. It is mainly spread through contact with the
body fluids of an infected person. The Ebola virus lays dormant in victims for up to
three weeks. Patients are given fluid salts to keep their bodies hydrated. Symptoms
of this virus include high fever, headaches, aching joints and muscles, vomiting,
and sore throat.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 7. The role of barriers in protecting the body from infection, including skin,
stomach acid, and gut and skin flora (the major routes pathogens may take when
entering the body).

THE SKIN AND SKIN FLORA: Our skin is an impenetrable layer strengthened by keratin.
It forms a physical barrier between many pathogens in the environment.
An oily substance produced by the skin is called sebum which contains chemicals that
inhibit the growth of microorganisms. This forms the second layer of skin defense
and does not harm the natural skin flora but plays a role in preventing disease.
Our natural skin flora competes successfully for a position on the skin and also
produces substances that inhibit the growth of other microorganisms.

THE GUT AND STOMACH ACID: The gut is also important in the natural defenses of the
body against disease. The saliva in our mouth has bactericidal properties. Some
polypeptides produced in the salivary glands destroy bacteria and others slow down
bacterial growth. Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid with a pH of approximately
2 and this effectively destroys the majority of microorganisms that are absorbed
through the mouth. The natural flora in the gut usually competes successfully for
both nutrients and space with any microorganisms which manage to pass through the
stomach. Like the skin flora, the gut flora produces antimicrobial compounds.
Another way in which the stomach helps protect against disease is vomiting. Vomiting
can be caused by many things, including absorbing toxins, bad smells, tumors, etc.
If the stomach is infected with bacteria or viruses, vomiting effectively physically
removes many of the organisms from the system.

THE MAJOR ROUTES BACTERIA MAY TAKE WHEN ENTERING THE BODY are the eyes, nose, mouth,
ears, anus, and urogenital opening. Another way in which bacteria may enter is
directly into the blood through the skin.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 8. Non-specific responses of the body to infection, including inflammation,
lysozyme action, interferon, and phagocytosis.

Non-specific responses to infection are initiated by body cells breaking down and
releasing chemicals.

INFLAMMATION: The inflammation involves a number of stages. Special cells called

mast cells release chemicals called histamines. Histamines cause blood vessels to
dilate and this leads to a rise in temperature which reduces bacteria reproduction.
The histamines also make the cells forming the walls of the capillaries more
permeable. As a result, plasma containing leukocytes and antibodies is forced out.
The antibodies disable the pathogens and the macrophages and neutrophils destroy
them by phagocytosis.

PHAGOCYTOSIS: phagocytosis is a process by which a cell engulfs another cell and

encloses it in a vesicle to digest it. The process of digestion uses lysozymes.
There are two main types of phagocytes:

Neutrophils: which are granulocytes and they engulf and digest pathogens by
phagocytosis.
Macrophages: have the enormous capacity to ingest pathogens and unlike neutrophils,
they can renew their lysosomes so they last much longer.

When phagocytes engulf a pathogen, it is enclosed in a vesicle called a phagosome.

The phagosome then fuses with the lysosome. The lysozymes break down the pathogen.

INTERFERONS:

■ Interferons prevent viral replication.

■ It results in the synthesis of proteins such as ribonuclease which breaks down
viral RNA of an RNA virus and protein kinases which inhibit translation.
■ This in turn prevents the protein coat of the virus to not get produced.
■ It also increases recognition of virus-infected cells y T-killer cells so that
they can be destroyed faster and less time is available for new virus
particles to get produced. Interferons also cause apoptosis (self-destruction)
which releases incomplete virus particles that are engulfed by phagocytes
during phagocytosis.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 9. The roles of antigens and antibodies in the body’s immune response include the
involvement of plasma cells, macrophages, and antigen-presenting cells.

Antigens:

➢ Every cell in the human body has markers on its cell surface membrane that
identify it.
➢ Microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses also have their own unique markers

➢ These markers are called antigens and they allow cell-to-cell recognition

1. Antigens are found on cell surface membranes, bacterial cell

walls, or the surfaces of viruses
2. Some glycolipids and glycoproteins on the outside of cell surface
membranes act as antigens

➢ Antigens can be either self-antigens or non-self antigens

➢ Antigens produced by the organism's own body cells are known as

self-antigens
■ Self-antigens do not stimulate an immune response

➢ Antigens not produced by the organism’s own body cells are known as
non-self antigens
■ Non-self antigens stimulate an immune response
■ E.g. the antigens found on pathogenic bacteria and viruses, or on
the surface of a transplanted organ

➢ After pathogens are engulfed by phagocytosis, phagocytes transfer the antigens

of the digested pathogen to their cell surface membrane, becoming
antigen-presenting cells

● Antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages activate the specific

immune response

■ This occurs when the white blood cells of the specific immune
response, known as lymphocytes, bind to the presented antigens
with specific receptors on their cell surface membranes
■ Note that macrophages are a type of phagocytic white blood cell

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Antibody structure:

● Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules sometimes known as immunoglobulins

● They have two antigen-binding sites

Antibody function:

➢ Antibodies bind to specific antigens that trigger the specific immune response
➢ Antibodies function to disable pathogens in several ways:

Agglutination: is when antibodies bind to the antigens on pathogens so the

microorganism agglutinates or sticks together. This helps to prevent them from
spreading through the body and also makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf them.

Opsonization is when an antibody acts as an opsonin, a chemical that makes an

antigen or pathogen more easily recognized by phagocytes.

Neutralization is when antibodies neutralize the effects of bacterial toxins by

binding to them.

Plasma cells have extensive endoplasmic reticulum and many ribosomes which are
adaptations for producing large quantities of protein antibodies. The antibodies
remain in the blood for a long time. Memory cells may stay in the blood for years or
even for a lifetime.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Macrophages are specialized white blood cells that are involved in the detection,
phagocytosis, and destruction of bacteria and other pathogens. Once bacteria is
inside a macrophage, it is trapped inside the phagosome which fuses with the
lysosome. The lysosome contains enzymes that are able to digest the pathogen.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs):

● Macrophage displays antigen from the pathogen on their surface (after

hydrolysis in phagocytosis).
● Enhances recognition by T helper cells, which cannot directly interface with
pathogens/antigens in body fluid.
● B cell APC divides to produce B memory cells. The B memory cells recognize the
antigens on the surface and help to produce antibodies against it so rapidly
that the pathogen is destroyed before symptoms of the disease develop.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 10. The differences between the roles of B cells (B memory and B effector cells),
and T cells (T helper, T killer, and T memory cells) in the host’s immune
response.

B Cell Response

● B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are the second type of white blood cell
in the specific immune response

➢ B cells remain in the bone marrow as they mature, hence the B in their
name

● B cells have many specific receptors on their cell surface membrane

➢ The receptors are in fact antibodies, and are known as antibody

receptors
➢ Each B cell has a different type of antibody receptor, meaning that each
B cell can bind to a different type of antigen

● If the corresponding antigen enters the body, B cells with the correct cell
surface antibodies will be able to recognise it and bind to it

➢ When the B cell binds to an antigen it forms an antigen-antibody complex

● The binding of the B cell to its specific antigen, along with the cell
signalling molecules produced by T helper cells, activates the B cell
● Once activated the B cells divide repeatedly by mitosis, producing many clones
of the original activated B cell
● The daughter cells differentiate into two main types of cells

➢ Effector cells, which go on to form plasma cells

■ Plasma cells produce specific antibodies to combat non-self
antigens
➢ Memory cells
■ Remain in the blood to allow a faster immune response to the same
pathogen in the future

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 T Cell Response

● T cells, sometimes known as T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell

involved with the specific immune response
➢ They are produced in the bone marrow and finish maturing in the thymus,
which is where the T in their name comes from

● Mature T cells have specific cell surface receptors called T cell receptors

● These receptors have a similar structure to antibodies and are each specific
to a particular type of antigen

● T cells are activated when they encounter and bind to their specific antigen
on the surface of an antigen presenting cell
➢ This antigen-presenting cell might be a macrophage, an infected body
cell, or the pathogen itself

● These activated T cells divide by mitosis to increase in number

➢ Dividing by mitosis produces genetically identical cells, or clones, so
all of the daughter cells will have the same type of T cell receptor on
their surface

● As they divide by mitosis the T cells differentiate into three main types of T
cell

➢ T helper cells
■ Release chemical signalling molecules that help to activate B
cells
➢ T killer cells
■ Bind to and destroy infected cells displaying the relevant
specific antigen
➢ T memory cells
■ Remain in the blood and enable a faster specific immune response
if the same pathogen is encountered again in the future

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 [Link] (natural, artificial, active, and passive).

Naturally Acquired Active Immunity:

Antigens enter the body naturally, and the body induces antibodies and associated
lymphocytes
(few years = lifelong)

Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity:

Antibodies pass [from the mother to fetus via placenta on to infant via the mother's
milk
(weeks = months)

Artificially Acquired Active Immunity:

Antigens are introduced in vaccines body produces antibodies and special localized
lymphocytes
(few years = life-long)

Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity:

Preformed antibodies in immune serum ane introduced by injection

(= 3 weeks)

■ Active immune responses: antibodies production and T-cell activation

■ Passive immune responses: delivery of preformed antibodies, limited, not long

term immunity, no development of an immune response.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 12. How the theory of an ‘evolutionary race’ between pathogens and their hosts is
supported by evasion mechanisms shown by pathogens.

The battle between host and pathogen is known as an evolutionary race; each organism
develops new ways in which to have an advantage over the other

HIV evasion mechanisms:

■ The virus kills helper T cells after it infects them which reduces the number
of cells that could detect the presence of the virus and activate the
production of antibodies
■ The virus prevents infected cells from presenting their antigens on the cell
surface membrane, making it very difficult for the relevant white blood cells
to recognize and destroy the infected cells

Mycobacterium tuberculosis evasion mechanisms:

■ Once engulfed by phagocytes in the lungs the bacteria produce substances that
will prevent a lysosome from fusing with the phagocytic vacuole
■ This prevents the bacteria from being broken down by digestive enzymes,
leaving them to multiply within the phagocyte
■ As with HIV the bacteria can disrupt antigen presentation in infected
phagocytes, making it difficult for the immune system to recognise and destroy
these cells

[Link] difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics.

Antibiotics are either:

● Bactericidal; they kill bacterial cells

● Bacteriostatic; they inhibit bacterial growth processes

Extra:

■ Since mammalian cells are eukaryotic, they will not be damaged by antibiotics
➢ They do not have cell walls
➢ They have different enzymes
➢ They have different ribosomes
■ Viruses do not have cellular structures such as enzymes, ribosomes, and cell
walls so they are not affected by antibiotics

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 14. Hospital-acquired infections - MRSA (infection prevention and control).

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA):

■ In the absence of an effective antibiotic, these resistant bacteria are quite

capable of causing death.
■ To prevent this from continuing, we must reduce the selection pressure for
antibiotic resistance.
■ We can do this in a number of ways: by using antibiotics only when they are
strictly necessary by making sure people understand that they must complete
each course of antibiotics by using as few different antibiotics as possible,
keeping some in reserve for use only if everything else fails.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 15. The role of microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter and the
recycling of carbon.

■ microorganisms secrete (enzymes / named enzyme}

■ credit correct details of decomposition;
■ e.g carbohydrase breaks down glycogen, protein broken down into amino acids,
■ idea that products of decomposition are (taken up into / used by}
microorganisms; (glucose/ hexose) used in respiration (by the microorganisms);
■ releasing (carbon dioxide/methane/eq) (into the atmosphere);
■ idea that other breakdown products return to the soil;

16. How DNA can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Each PCR reaction requires

■ DNA or RNA to be amplified

■ Primers:
■ These are short sequences of single-stranded DNA that have base
sequences complementary to the 3’ end of the DNA or RNA being
copied; they define the region that is to be amplified,
identifying where the DNA polymerase enzyme needs to bind

■ DNA polymerase:
■ The enzyme used to build the new DNA or RNA strand.
■ The most commonly used polymerase is Taq polymerase, which comes
from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus
➢ Taq polymerase does not denature at the high temperature
required during the first stage of the PCR reaction
➢ The optimum temperature of Taq polymerase is high enough to
prevent annealing of the DNA strands that have not been
copied yet

■ Free nucleotides
■ Enable the construction of new DNA or RNA strands

■ Buffer solution
■ Ensures the optimum pH for the reactions to occur in

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 The DNA sample that is to be amplified is mixed with the enzyme Taq (Thermus
aquaticus)
DNA polymerase, primers (small sequences of DNA that must join to the beginning of
the separated DNA strands before the copying can begin), a good. supply of the four
different nucleotides, and a suitable buffer for the reaction.

1. The mixture is placed in a PCR machine. It is heated to 90-95 °C, which causes
the DNA strands to separate as the hydrogen bonds between them break.

2. The mixture is then cooled to 50-60 °C so that the primers bind (anneal) to
the single DNA strands.

3. Finally, the mixture is heated to 75 °C, which is the optimum temperature for
the Taq DNA polymerase enzyme to build the complementary strands of DNA.

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 17. How gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments of different
lengths.

■ Gel electrophoresis is a technique used widely in the analysis of DNA, RNA and
proteins
➢ DNA fragments are created, e.g. using enzymes known as restriction
endonucleases that cut DNA at specific restriction sites
➢ The resulting fragments are inserted into a well at the end of a piece
of agar gel, before a current is passed through the gel

■ Molecules move through the agar due to the difference in charge across the gel
➢ Positively charged molecules will move towards the cathode (negative
pole) while negatively charged molecules will move towards the anode
(positive pole)
➢ DNA is negatively charged due to the phosphate groups and so when placed
in an electric field the molecules move towards the anode

■ The molecules are separated according to their size / mass

➢ Different sized molecules move through the gel at different rates
➢ The tiny pores in the gel allow smaller molecules to move quickly,
whereas larger molecules move more slowly

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 ■ The process of gel electrophoresis involves the following stages:

➢ An agarose gel plate is created and wells are cut into the gel at one
end

➢ The gel is submerged in a tank containing electrolyte solution; this is

a salt solution that conducts electricity

➢ The DNA samples are transferred into the wells using a micropipette,
ensuring that a sample of DNA standard is loaded into the first well
★ The purpose of the standard is to produce a set of known results
with which to compare any new results

➢ The negative electrode is connected to the end of the plate with the
wells and the positive anode is connected at the far end
★ The DNA fragments move towards the anode due to the attraction
between the negatively charged phosphates of DNA and the anode
★ The smaller mass / shorter pieces of DNA fragments move faster and
therefore further from the wells than the larger fragments

➢ Probes are then added, after which an X-ray image is taken or UV-light
is shone onto the paper producing a pattern of bands which can be
compared to the control, or standard, fragments of DNA
★ Probes are single-stranded DNA sequences that are complementary to
the regions of interest; they can be
■ A radioactive label which causes the probes to emit
radiation that makes the X-ray film go dark, creating a
pattern of dark bands
■ A fluorescent dye which fluoresces when exposed to UV light,
creating a pattern of coloured bands

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Analysing the results of gel electrophoresis:

■ Gel electrophoresis produces a pattern of bands on the gel that represent DNA
fragments of different length
○ The fragments were produced after PCR by cutting the DNA samples into
pieces using restriction endonuclease enzymes
○ Restriction endonucleases cut DNA at specific locations in the DNA base
sequence, so will always cut in between sections of repeated bases known
as variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)
➢ VNTRs are known as micro- or mini-satellites depending on the
number of repeats that occur; micro-satellites have fewer repeats
than mini-satellites
○ Different people have different numbers of repeats in their VNTR
regions, so the fragments will differ in length depending on whether
there are few or many repeats
■ Different individuals will have different lengths of DNA fragments, so a
different pattern of banding will form on each profile
■ Every banding pattern will be unique to an individual, so comparisons of DNA
from crime scenes with that of suspects is a reliable way of finding out who
was present at a crime scene

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 18. How DNA profiling is used for identification and determining genetic
relationships between organisms.

DNA profiling is a technique that can be used to analyze a sample of DNA (e.g. one
found at a crime scene) and compare it to DNA samples taken from the suspects.
The DNA sample will be collected (this is usually blood, saliva, or semen) and
amplified using PCR.
The PCR products are separated using gel electrophoresis, which separates the DNA
fragments according to length.
The gel is visualized using UV light and the banding patterns from the suspect’s DNA
can be compared with that found at the crime scene.
The same technique can also be used to identify genetic relationships between people
(as in paternity testing) or to determine evolutionary relationships between
organisms.

19. How to determine the time of death of a mammal by examining the extent of
decomposition, stage of succession, forensic entomology, body temperature and
degree of muscle contraction.

Extent of decomposition:
● The process of decomposition begins soon after death
★ Decomposition is carried out by organisms known as decomposers e.g.
bacteria and fungi
■ Enzymes secreted from the cells of these organisms break down
biological molecules in dead tissue
● The rate of decomposition will be affected by factors such as temperature and
availability of oxygen
★ Decomposition would be slower in anaerobic conditions and at lower
temperatures but would be faster at high temperatures

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Stage of succession:
● Succession refers to the change in the types of organisms found in a habitat
over time
★ This is often an ecology term that is applied to a habitat such as a
pond or woodland, but in this case the habitat is the dead body
■ The difference between succession in ecology and in forensics is
that in an ecosystem the early pioneer species are out-competed
and disappear as the system matures, while in a dead body all of
the newly arriving species remain as decomposition progresses
● Above ground the body would undergo the following stages of succession
★ Bacteria will be found in and on the dead body immediately after TOD
★ As tissue decomposition sets in it creates ideal conditions for flies to
lay eggs and their larvae to hatch
★ As more soft tissue is consumed by the fly larvae it creates favourable
conditions for beetles to establish
★ When tissue dries out over time flies will leave the body as they prefer
a moisture-rich environment
★ Beetles, however, can decompose dry tissue so they will remain on the
body
★ Once all tissues have been decomposed most organisms will leave the body
● These succession stages will differ depending on where the body is located as
the accessibility to insects and availability of oxygen will be affected e.g.
★ Buried in soil
★ Buried in a coffin
★ Under water
● The stage of succession of a body can provide information about the estimated
TOD

Forensic entomology:
● A dead body provides an ideal habitat for many species of insects; the study
of these insect colonies is known as forensic entomology
● Different insect species will colonise a body at different times after death,
providing information about the TOD
★ Flies will be found on the body within a few hours after death, while
beetles will only colonise the body later
● Another clue that insects can provide is the stage of life cycle they are at
★ E.g. blowfly eggs will hatch after about 24 hours so if larvae are
present on the body it indicates that the person died more than 24 hours
ago
■ Other insects have longer life cycles, so if only blowfly larvae
are found it indicates that only 24 hours has passed since TOD
★ Factors that might affect the progression of insect life cycles include
■ Drugs that may be present in the body
■ Humidity of the surroundings
■ Oxygen availability,Temperature

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim

 Body temperature:
● Respiration and other metabolic processes produce heat in living organisms
★ This heat is necessary for maintaining our body temperature at around 37
°C during life
● Once a person dies metabolic reactions will eventually come to an end
★ Since no more heat is produced the body temperature drops until it
reaches the temperature of the surrounding environment
● Certain conditions will affect the rate at which body heat is lost e.g.
★ Air temperature
★ Surface area : volume ratio
★ Presence of clothing

Degree of muscle contraction:

● Muscles in the body begin to contract about 4-6 hours after TOD, leading to a
general stiffening of the body known as rigor mortis
● Rigor mortis comes about as a result of changes to the proteins in muscle
cells after death

★ Since no more oxygen reaches the muscle cells after death they will
start to respire anaerobically, producing lactic acid
★ The accumulation of lactic acid decreases the pH in the muscle cells,
denaturing the enzymes that produce ATP
★ Without ATP the myosin heads cannot be released from the actin
filaments, locking the muscles in a contracted state
■ Muscles contract due to the action of two protein filaments;
myosin and actin
■ The binding of myosin heads to actin proteins followed by the
bending of the myosin heads causes muscle contraction
■ ATP is required to allow the myosin heads to detach from the
binding sites on actin
★ This leads to the stiffness that is the main characteristic of rigor
mortis

● Rigor mortis will begin in the smaller muscles of the head and end in the
larger muscles of the lower body, meaning that forensic experts can determine
TOD by the progress of rigor mortis through the body
★ Rigor mortis would have taken place in every muscle between 12 and 18
hours after death, but will wear off again after about 24 to 36 hours
from TOD
● The process is affected by the level of muscle development and the temperature
of the surroundings
★ Higher temperatures will speed up the rate of rigor mortis

Compiled by Muhammad Izaz and Subhana Karim