STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL ON THE PRODUCTION OF

SACHET WATER(A CASE STUDY OF ADELAK WATER)

BY
AYORINDE, AYOMIDE DAVID
MATRIC NO: 20193374

A project submitted to the Department of Statistics, College of Physical Sciences,

Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of Bachelor of Science([Link]) degree in Statistics

AUGUST, 2024.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project was written by me and is a correct record of my own
research work. It has not been presented in any previous application for any degree of this
or any other university. All citations and sources of information are clearly acknowledged
by means of reference.

AYORINDE, AYOMIDE D. Date

Student

i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work with title STATISTICAL QUALITY CON-
TROL ON THE PRODUCTION OF SACHET WATER(A CASE STUDY
OF ADELAK WATER) was carried out by AYORINDE, AYOMIDE D. with the
matriculation number 20193374, of the Department of Statistics, College of Physical
Sciences, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Ogun State,Nigeria.

DR. G.A DAWODU Date

(Supervisor)

PROF. S.O.N AGBWUEBO Date

(Head of Department)

PROF. O.I OSOWOLE Date

(External Examiner)

ii
 ABSTRACT
This study investigates the application of statistical quality control (SQC) methods
in the production of sachet water, using Adelak Water as a case study. The primary
objective is to employ SQC practices in ensuring product quality and compliance with
regulatory standards. A quantitative research design was adopted, utilizing control charts
to monitor key quality parameter which in this case is fill volume. Data was collected
through direct observation, physical measurements from Adelak Water’s production fa-
cility, located in Elega, Abeokuta.

Simple random sampling was employed to select representative samples from the pro-
duction process. Descriptive statistics and control chart analyses were conducted to
identify process variability and detect deviations from quality standards. The study
highlights the critical role of SQC in maintaining consistent product quality.

Findings indicate that the implementation of control charts significantly enhances

the monitoring and control of production processes, ensuring adherence to regulatory
requirements and improving overall product quality. The study also identifies areas for
improvement and provides recommendations for optimizing quality control practices at
Adelak Water. This research contributes to the broader understanding of SQC applica-
tions in the sachet water industry, offering insights that can inform policy and practice
for other manufacturers.

iii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty God, the creator of the universe for his
protection, guidance and resources throughout the course of this program, my late dad
and also my family for their relentless effort and support.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have supported and guided
me throughout the completion of this project titled: Statistical Quality Control on
the Production of Sachet Water (A Case Study of Adelak Water).

First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Dr. G.A Dawodu,
for his invaluable guidance, encouragement, and expertise. Your constructive feedback
and unwavering support have been instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of
this research.

I am deeply grateful to the management and staff of Adelak Water for granting me
access to their production facility and providing the necessary data for this study. Your
cooperation and openness have been essential for the successful completion of this re-
search.

I would also like to thank my H.O.D, Prof. S.O.N Agbwuebo, the lecturer who taught
the course Statistical Quality Control, Mr. Yusuf and all other wonderful lecturers in the
Department of Statistics for their insightful discussions, suggestions, and encouragement
throughout this journey. Your academic support and camaraderie is greatly appreciated.

Special thanks to friends, in person of Oke Isaac, Haleem Olamide, Jacob Anuoluwapo,
Adebayo Seun,Ivaje Blessing,Adeyemo Anjolajesu, Tojola Funke, Fadeelat Arike, my fam-
ily members and the love of my life, Akinloye Titilayo for their unwavering support, pa-
tience, and encouragement. Your belief in me has been a constant source of motivation
and strength.

Finally, I acknowledge the financial and moral support provided by my parents Mr.
and Mrs Samson Ayorinde and My Guardian, Mrs. Akande T.O, whose sacrifices and
unwavering belief in my potential have made this academic endeavor possible.

To everyone who has contributed in one way or another to the success of this project,
I express my sincere gratitude. Your contributions have been invaluable, and I am deeply
appreciative of your support.

Thank you.

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION i

CERTIFICATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Significance of Statistical Quality Control in Sachet Water Production . . 2
1.3 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Statement of the Research Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Research Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Scope and Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Ethical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.9 Definition of Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.10 Adelak Water Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 History of Statistical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Importance of Statistical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Dimensions of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Statistical Techniques in Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Types of SQC Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.1 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.2 Acceptance Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.3 Statistical Process Control (SPC): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Types of Control Chart with their Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9.1 Control Charts for Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9.2 Control Charts for Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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 2.10 Some Selected Research on Quality Control of Sachet Water . . . . . . . 18

3 METHODOLOGY 21
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Control Charts for Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Statistical Basis of the Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Phase I Application of and R Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Phase II Operation of the x̄ and R Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Control Limits, Specification Limits, and Natural Tolerance Limits . . . . 25

4 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 27

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Phase I Data Descriptive statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Phase I Application of x̄ and R Charts Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Phase II Application of x̄ and R Charts Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION 34

5.1 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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 LIST OF TABLE

TABLE PAGE

1 Summary of group statistics for the x̄ Chart 38

2 Additional statistics for the x̄ Chart 38
3 Control limits for x̄ Chart 39

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 LIST OF FIGURES

TABLE PAGE

1 Flowchart Adelak Water Production Process 10

2 A typical control chartr 25
3 A typical out-of-control chartr 25
4 Out of control Phase I x̄ Chart 40
5 Out of control phase I R-char 41
6 In control Phase I x̄ Char 42
7 In control phase I R-char 43
8 Phase II x̄ Chart 24
9 phase II R-char 45

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Over time, population growth, urbanization, and growing knowledge of the health risks
associated with contaminated water sources have increased demand for safe drinking wa-
ter globally. Because it’s less expensive, more convenient, and seen as safer than other
options, sachet water is now widely used in many places, including Nigeria. Sachet water,
sometimes called ”pure water,” comes in tiny plastic pouches and is becoming a major
global source of drinking water for millions of people. While much of the focus on sachet
water revolves around public health and safety, one of the critical aspects of product
quality is fill volume—the amount of water contained in each sachet. Fill volume is a
vital quality characteristic that significantly impacts both consumer satisfaction and the
efficiency of the production process.

Adelak Water is a well-known sachet water that functions in this ever-changing mar-
ket, catering to a significant customer base. Based in Elega,Abeokuta, Adelak Water
has made a name for itself as a trustworthy company by offering a crucial service that
guarantees its customers access to clean drinking water. However, given the importance
of trust in the fill volume of sachet water, the effectiveness of their quality control proce-
dures is being investigated.

In the context of Statistical Quality Control (SQC), monitoring and controlling fill
volume is essential to maintaining consistency in production. SQC refers to a set of
statistical tools used to ensure that a process operates at its desired performance level.
In the sachet water industry, it ensures that the right volume of water is filled into
the sachets during production, aligning with both consumer expectations and regulatory
requirements.
Beyond just ensuring product quality, the implementation of SQC can also lead to
cost savings for manufacturers. By reducing waste, minimizing defects, and optimizing
production processes, companies can increase their efficiency and profitability. This is
particularly important for small-scale producers who may face significant financial pres-
sure in a competitive market. Thus, adopting SQC techniques not only benefits the
consumers by providing them with safer drinking water but also strengthens the overall
business sustainability of the producers.

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1.2 Significance of Statistical Quality Control in Sachet Water

Production
Statistical quality control (SQC) plays a crucial role in ensuring the quality, consistency,
and safety of sachet water production. By systematically monitoring and controlling
various aspects of the production process, SQC helps in maintaining high standards
and meeting regulatory requirements. One of the critical parameters in sachet water
production is the fill volume. The significance of SQC in managing fill volume can be
highlighted as follows:

1. Ensuring Compliance with Regulatory Standards:

Regulatory agencies, such as the National Agency for Food and Drug Adminis-
tration and Control (NAFDAC) in Nigeria, mandate specific fill volume standards
for sachet water to ensure that consumers receive the quantity advertised on the
packaging. SQC helps manufacturers consistently meet these standards, thereby
avoiding legal penalties and maintaining market credibility.

2. Enhancing Consumer Trust and Satisfaction:

Consistent fill volumes instill confidence in consumers, assuring them that they are
receiving fair value for their money. This consistency fosters brand loyalty and can
lead to a positive reputation in the competitive sachet water market. Variations
in fill volume, on the other hand, can lead to consumer dissatisfaction and loss of
trust.

3. Reducing Production Costs and Waste:

SQC techniques, such as control charts, enable manufacturers to detect and correct
deviations in fill volume early in the production process. This proactive approach
minimizes overfilling and underfilling, which can lead to product waste and increased
production costs. By optimizing the fill volume, companies can reduce material
usage and enhance operational efficiency.

4. Improving Process Efficiency:

Monitoring fill volume through SQC helps identify patterns and causes of variability
in the production process. By analyzing these patterns, manufacturers can imple-
ment process improvements and adjustments to enhance overall efficiency. This
continuous improvement cycle contributes to a more stable and predictable produc-
tion environment.

5. Preventing Quality Defects and Contamination:

Consistent control over fill volume ensures that the sachets are properly sealed
and free from defects that could lead to contamination. Proper fill volumes help
maintain the integrity of the packaging, preventing leaks and ensuring the product

2
 remains safe for consumption. This is particularly important in the context of
public health and safety.

6. Facilitating Data-Driven Decision Making:

SQC provides a data-driven framework for making informed decisions regarding the
production process. By collecting and analyzing data on fill volume, manufacturers
can identify trends, set performance benchmarks, and develop strategies for contin-
uous quality improvement. This data-centric approach enables more precise control
and accountability in production.

7. Supporting Competitive Advantage:

Companies that effectively implement SQC practices, including rigorous control of
fill volume, can differentiate themselves in the market by consistently delivering
high-quality products. This competitive advantage can lead to increased market
share and profitability, as consumers prefer reliable and trustworthy brands.

In conclusion, the significance of SQC in sachet water production, particularly with

regard to fill volume, cannot be overstated. By ensuring regulatory compliance, enhancing
consumer satisfaction, reducing costs, improving efficiency, preventing defects, enabling
data-driven decisions, and supporting competitive advantage, SQC serves as a cornerstone
for achieving excellence in sachet water manufacturing. Adelak Water’s commitment to
SQC practices exemplifies the importance of these principles in delivering safe, high-
quality drinking water to consumers.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The primary objective of this project is to conduct a comprehensive analysis using the
statistical quality control (SQC) measures to ensure the quality of Adelak sachet water
products. By examining key aspects of production, sampling, testing, and data analysis,
this study aims to:

1. check if the process average and variability are under control with respect to the
fill volume.

2. suggest an alternative control scheme for the future, in event of out-of-control pro-
cess

3. provide insights and recommendations for Adelak Water and other sachet water
manufacturers to strengthen their quality control systems and uphold consumer
confidence.

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1.4 Significance of the Study
The study’s conclusions have important ramifications for a number of stakeholders, in-
cluding politicians, industry practitioners, consumers, and regulatory bodies. This study
adds to the current conversation on food safety, quality assurance, and regulatory com-
pliance by offering insights into the quality control systems of a major producer of sachet
water. Additionally, Adelak Water may use the recommendations from this study to
influence strategic decisions and enhance their quality management system, which would
improve consumer trust.

1.5 Statement of the Research Problem

The primary research problem of this study is the persistent variability in the fill volume
of sachet water produced by Adelak Water. These variations can result in non-compliance
with regulatory standards, consumer dissatisfaction, and inefficiencies in the production
process. Specifically, the study seeks to address the following questions:
1. Extent of Variability: What is the extent of fill volume variability in the sachet
water produced by Adelak Water?
2. Causes of Variability: What are the main factors contributing to the observed
variations in fill volume?
3. Impact on Quality and Compliance: How do these variations affect the quality of
the sachet water and the company’s compliance with regulatory standards?
4. Effectiveness of SQC Methods: How effective are the current statistical quality
control (SQC) methods in detecting and reducing fill volume variability?
5. Recommendations for Improvement: What improvements can be made to the SQC
practices at Adelak Water to ensure more consistent fill volumes?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

H0: The process is under control with respect to the average and variability of the fill
volume of sachet water.

H1: The process is not under control with respect to the average and variability of the
fill volume of sachet water.

1.7 Scope and Limitation

It is important to acknowledge the scope and limitations of this study. While efforts
have been made to provide a comprehensive analysis of Adelak Water’s SQC practices,

4
certain constraints such as access to proprietary data and resources may have impacted
the depth of the investigation. Additionally, this study focuses specifically on Adelak
Water and may not fully represent the diversity of SQC practices across the sachet water
industry.

1.8 Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, ethical principles including confidentiality, integrity,
and respect for human subjects have been upheld. Any information obtained from Adelak
Water or other sources has been treated with confidentiality and used solely for research
purposes.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

1. Statistical Quality Control (SQC):A set of statistical techniques used to mea-
sure, monitor, and control the quality of a process. SQC aims to ensure that
products or services meet specified quality standards and are free from defects.
2. Control Chart:A graphical tool used in SQC to monitor the stability of a process
over time. It helps identify variations in the process and distinguishes between
common and special causes of variation.
3. Variable:A measurable characteristic of a product or process that can vary. In
SQC, variables are continuous data such as length, weight, temperature, or fill
volume.
4. X-bar Chart:A type of control chart used to monitor the mean values of a sample
over time. It helps detect shifts in the process average.
5. R Chart:A type of control chart used to monitor the range within a sample. It
helps identify variations in the spread or dispersion of the process.
6. Upper Control Limit (UCL):The upper boundary on a control chart, repre-
senting the highest value a process variable can reach before it is considered out of
control due to special causes.
7. Lower Control Limit (LCL):The lower boundary on a control chart, representing
the lowest value a process variable can reach before it is considered out of control
due to special causes.
8. Process Mean:The average value of a process variable over a period of time. It is
the central line in an X-bar chart.
9. Process Variation:The degree to which a process variable fluctuates. It can be
due to common causes (inherent to the process) or special causes (external factors).

5
 10. Common Cause Variation:Natural, inherent variations in a process that are
stable and predictable over time. They are due to the random variability in the
process.

11. Special Cause Variation:Unusual or unexpected variations in a process that are

due to specific, identifiable sources. They indicate that the process is out of control
and require investigation.

12. Sampling:The process of selecting a subset of items from a larger population or

process to estimate characteristics of the entire population or process.

13. Sample Mean:The average value of a sample, used to estimate the process mean.

14. Sample Range:The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a
sample. It is used to estimate process variability.

15. Process Capability:A measure of a process’s ability to produce output within

specified limits. It assesses how well a process can meet specification limits under
stable conditions.

16. Specification Limits:The upper and lower bounds set by design or customer re-
quirements within which a process variable must fall to be considered acceptable.

17. Quality Control:The process of ensuring that products or services meet specified
quality standards and are free from defects. It involves monitoring and controlling
the production process.

18. Quality Assurance:A systematic approach to ensuring that quality requirements

are met. It encompasses all activities from design, development, production, and
service to ensure quality.

19. Process Improvement:The ongoing effort to enhance process performance, effi-

ciency, and quality. It involves identifying and eliminating causes of variation and
defects.

20. Root Cause Analysis:A method used to identify the underlying causes of defects
or variations in a process. It helps in addressing the source of the problem rather
than just its symptoms.

1.10 Adelak Water Production Process

The main source of raw material is water, usually obtained from boreholes after which
the Reverse Osmosis (RO) Filtering Machine uses a semi-permeable membrane to re-
move impurities, contaminants, and dissolved solids from [Link] low density poly-
thene (LPDE) is used for sachet water packaging, as recommended by NAFDAC. Each
sachet contains 50cl of processed water. Each pack or bag of processed water is made

6
of plastic and contains twenty sachets of water. Also, the primary machines used are :
reverse osmosis (R.O) Machine, sachet water machine, pumping machine and the treat-
ment plant. The summary of the general process in Adelak Water Factory is shown in
the flowchart below:

Figure 1: Flowchart Adelak Water Production Process

Building on the overview provided in the Introductory Section of this project work,
the following Literature Review will explore existing research and theoretical frameworks
relevant to the study, offering a deeper understanding of the background and context
necessary to address the research questions.

7
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The quality of products and services has become a major decision factor in most business
today. Regardless of whether the consumer is an individual, a corporation, or a retail
store. When the consumer is making purchase decisions, consumers prioritize quality.
Also, a manufacturer buys raw material and expects to process it with no rework or scrap.

Quality control being one of the prominent tools employed to ensure a certain level
of quality in a product or service, has emerged as a prime tool and an important factor
required by any successful industry operating in today’s highly competitive business en-
vironment to incorporate in order to ensure quality of standard.

Peters and Walterman(1982) found quality to be an important element in the pur-

suit of excellence in business. Quality is also defined as all the features and char-
acteristics of the product or service that contributes to the satisfaction of customer’s
needs(price,safety,availability,reliability and usability, etc).

According to Alford and Beatty(1951), quality control is an industrial management

technique by means of which products of uniform and acceptable quality are manufac-
tured or rendered. It answers the question of ”what to produce?” What is required or
expected? When and how to carry out the inspection? and what measures to take to
ensure zero defective item(s) in a production process? It can also be viewed as the tech-
nique of applying statistical methods based on theory of probability to establish quality
standards and maintain it in the most economical manner. Quality control therefore
entails integrating the following related techniques and activities such as:

• Specification of what is needed

• Design of product or service to meet the specification
• Production installation to meet the full intent of specification
• Carrying out inspection to determine conformance to the specification
• Make review of usage to provide information for the revision of the specification
when necessary.

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 On that note, every organization is therefore expected to make use of the following
steps in ensuring that quality is inculcated into the process:

• Setting Standard: This means determining the required cost, performance quality,
safety quality, reliability quality and standard for a product

• Appraising Conformance: This involves comparing the conformance of the manu-

factured product or service offered to the earlier set standards.

• Acting When Necessary: This involves correcting problems and their cost through
the full range of maintenance of factors influencing customer’s satisfaction.

• Planning for Improvements: This requires developing continous effort towards im-
proving on the costs of performance, reliability standards and the adopted safety
measures.

2.2 History of Statistical Quality Control

In 1924, Doctor Walter Shewhart founded the first statistical charts from Bell Telephone
Laboratories in order to control production process. Therefore, he was known as the
founder of statistical quality control. Generally, this period was known as the starting
point of statistical process control. However, application of statistics in industry did not
start in this period. The reason behind this issue was that production managers did not
believe that statistical procedures should be generated an applied in the production pro-
cess. They also did not believe that there should be statistics experts in manufacturing
facilities. After professor Shewhart researches, two other colleagues Dodge and Roming
investigated application of statistics theory in sampling. They published results of their
work in 1944 as ”Dodge and Roming Inspection Tables Dodge”. These tables were later
used as basic scientific statistical quality control.

In 1937, during World War II, the purchase of millions of tons food, ammunition,
clothing, medicine, etc. by U. S military - without any scientific method to monitor them
- forced U. S military leaders to turn to statistical quality control. This military action
on the one hand led America to victory in World War II and on the other hand estab-
lished quality control science (statistically) in the world. After the World War II ended, a
national organization was established called the Association of U. S quality control. This
association in line with managing publication of industrial quality control magazine be-
came the largest statistical quality control center which aimed to promote application of
statistical quality control in the continent of America. This association later established
a branch in Japan. In 1932 when Shewhart made a trip to London, Egan S. Pearson read
an article about application of statistics in industry in Royal Statistical Society.

In this paper, he led the association to devote a separate department to Industrial

Research and Statistics. The association’s magazine also published a supplement on

9
statistics. This movement was the beginning of quality control in the UK. This move-
ment grew faster in UK than U.S. The British Standards Association published a book
titled as ”Application of statistical methods in standardization of industries and quality
control”. By publishing this book, they showed their interest in new ways to control
quality. This issue led to the fact that UK industries used new statistical quality control
methods in producing most of their products by 1937. In 1932 when Shewhart made a
trip to London, Egan S. Pearson read an article about application of statistics in industry
in Royal Statistical Society. In this paper, he led the association to devote a separate
department to Industrial Research and Statistics. The association’s magazine also pub-
lished a supplement on statistics. This movement was the beginning of quality control
in the UK. This movement grew faster in UK than U.S. Years later, the quality control
procedures made way to other countries in the world from the America and the United
Kingdom. With guidance of Doctor Edwards Deming, statistical quality control methods
were developed in Japan up to world’s best quality control systems. Ishikawa was one of
the most influential Japanese individuals regarding development and education of quality
control procedures. He launched his quality control studies in 1950 . He visited Bell Labs
in 1958 and met Shewhart for the first time. After the World War II ended, a national
organization was established called the Association of U. S quality control.

This association in line with managing publication of industrial quality control mag-
azine became the largest statistical quality control center which aimed to promote ap-
plication of statistical quality control in the continent of America. This association later
established a branch in Japan. Control charts that were first presented by Shewhart
have developed until recently; thus, they are considered as one of extensive topics of
statistical process control. These charts include a variety of control charts which consist
of various modes including: univariate, multivariate, ordinal data, combined charts, etc.
Following individuals have conducted extensive studies on statistical process control field
of study, particularly control charts: Taguchi, Hotelling, Crowder, Hunter, Page, Croas-
dale, Daudin, Woodall and Montgomery, Davis, John Holland, Saniga, Aparisi, He and
Grigoryan. In recent years, the application of statistical process control in most produc-
tive and unproductive units has increased. It ensures greater customer satisfaction and
economic life of the units.

Methods: With increasing advent of human knowledge, technological development

and dependency of human society to technology, the technologies have attained great
qualitative and economic status. Thus, the production of high quality and low cost prod-
ucts are considered as key to life of the organizations. As a result, companies which have
accepted following principles as basic rules for their improvement can compete with each
other in the new era and continue their economic activities [in the global market]: con-
tinuous improvement of their [economic] processes and products. The needs to compete
over price and quality of products have resulted in the fact that many organizations -
which were aware of competitive status [of products in the market] - have focused on op-
timizing the design and manufacture of products. This new focus has greatly influenced

10
the quality and price of product realization cycle. As a result, this issue has resulted in
emergence of new filed of competition for organizations which is: design and manufacture
of high quality and low price products and processes. Statistical quality control means
the application of statistical methods and principles at all stages including: design, pro-
duction, maintenance and services. This control aims to meet economic demands and
needs. In fact, one of the main goals of production systems is reduction of total cost of
the product which consists of two major components: pre-sale cost (construction costs)
and post-sale costs to the customer (cost of application). In this regard, all product
realization activities can be divided into following sections:

1. Pre-construction activities (including marketing, product design, construction pro-

cess design activities and ...)

2. During construction activities (including manufacturing activities)

3. Post-construction activities (including packaging, storage, transportation activities,

etc.)

Among above-mentioned three activities, the first two activities have great influence on
total cost of a product. Steps of pre-construction optimization method results in cost
optimization of manufacture and deployment units. On the other hand, optimization
methods related to activities during construction mainly results in preserving achieve-
ments of previous stages. These methods are used in the production stage. In this stage,
a high quality product is designed; moreover, construction costs are specified . If a prod-
uct is expected to have customer’s desired features, it must be produced by a sustainable
or repeatable process. In other words, manufacturing process should have a little vari-
ability regarding specified goal of the product quality . Statistical Process Control (SPC)
is a powerful tool which can be helpful in two cases: process stabilization and improving
efficiency of the process by reducing its variability. SPC can be used for any process. In
total, seven tools of SPC are as follows :

1. Record data sheets (control sheets

2. Histogram graph (histogram)

3. Defect concentration diagram

4. Pareto chart

5. Cause and effect diagram (fish bone)

6. Scatter diagram

7. Control chart

11
Although these tools are often called seven great tools which construct an integral part of
the SPC, they are just technical aspects of SPC. In fact, The SPC is just an attitude or an
idea. In other words, statistical process control is what all personnel of an organization
wish for, so that they can continuously improve their system in terms of quality and
productivity. Of course, such attitudes and ideas will be mostly successful when the
management participates in quality improvement process. (Niavand and Tajeri, 2014)

2.3 Importance of Statistical Quality Control

Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is crucial for ensuring the quality and consistency of
products and services across various industries. Here are some key points highlighting its
importance:

1. Consistency and Uniformity: SQC helps maintain consistent quality by monitoring

production processes and identifying variations that may affect product quality.
This ensures uniformity in the final output.

2. Defect Reduction: By identifying and addressing the root causes of defects, SQC
reduces the number of defective products, leading to improved customer satisfaction
and reduced costs associated with rework and scrap.

3. Cost Savings: Implementing SQC can lead to significant cost savings by reducing
waste, rework, and downtime. It helps in optimizing the use of resources and
minimizing production costs.

4. Compliance and Standards: SQC ensures that products meet industry standards
and regulatory requirements. This is particularly important in industries where
safety and compliance are critical, such as pharmaceuticals and aerospace.

5. Process Improvement: Continuous monitoring and analysis of production processes

enable companies to identify areas for improvement. This leads to more efficient
and effective production processes over time.

6. Customer Satisfaction: High-quality products that meet customer expectations lead

to increased customer satisfaction and loyalty. SQC helps in achieving this by
ensuring that products are free from defects and meet quality standards.

7. Competitive Advantage: Companies that consistently produce high-quality prod-

ucts can differentiate themselves in the market, leading to a competitive advantage.
SQC plays a vital role in maintaining this high level of quality.

8. Data-Driven Decision Making: SQC relies on statistical methods and data analysis,
which provide objective and quantifiable insights into production processes. This
enables more informed decision-making and better problem-solving.

12
 9. Risk Management: By identifying and controlling potential quality issues early in
the production process, SQC helps in mitigating risks that could lead to product
recalls, legal issues, and damage to the company’s reputation.

10. Efficiency and Productivity: SQC techniques such as control charts and process
capability analysis help in identifying bottlenecks and inefficiencies in production
processes. This leads to improvements in overall productivity and efficiency.

In summary, SQC is a vital tool for ensuring product quality, reducing costs, improving
processes, and maintaining customer satisfaction, all of which are essential for the success
and competitiveness of any organization.

2.4 Dimensions of Quality

The following are the dimensions of quality and some basic terminology commonly used
where quality is concerned:
1. Performance:(Will the product do the intended job?) Potential customers usually
evaluate a product to determine if it will perform certain specific functions and
determine how well it performs them.

2. Reliability:(How often does the product fail?) Complex products, such as many
appliances, automobiles, or airplanes, will usually require some repair over their
service life. For example, you should expect that an automobile will require occa-
sional repair, but if the car requires frequent repair, we say that it is unreliable.
There are many industries in which the customers view of quality is greatly im-
pacted by the reliability dimension of quality

3. Durability: (How long does the product last?) This is the effective service life of
the product. Customers obviously want products that perform satisfactorily over a
long period of time. The automobile and major appliance industries are examples
of businesses where this
dimension of quality is very important to most customers.

4. Serviceability: (How easy is it to repair the product?) There are many industries
in which the customers view of quality is directly influenced by how quickly and
economically are pair or routine maintenance activity can be accomplished.

5. Aesthetics: (What does the product look like?) This is the visual appeal of the
product, often taking into account factors such as style, color, shape, packaging
alternatives, tactile characteristics, and other sensory features.

6. Features: (What does the product do?) Usually, customers associate high quality
with products that have added features; that is, those that have features beyond
the basic performance of the competition.

13
 7. Perceived Quality:(What is the reputation of the company or its product?) In many
cases, customers rely on the past reputation of the company concerning quality of its
products. This reputation is directly influenced by failures of the product that are
highly visible to the public or that require product recalls, and by how the customer
is treated when a quality-related problem with the product is reported. Perceived
quality, customer loyalty, and repeated business are closely interconnected.
8. Conformance to Standards: (Is the product made exactly as the designer intended?)We
usually think of a high-quality product as one that exactly meets the requirements
placed on it. Manufactured parts that do not exactly meet the designers require-
ments can cause significant quality problems when they are used as the components
of a more complex assembly. An automobile consists of several thousand parts. If
each one is just slightly too big or too small, many of the components will not fit
together properly, and the vehicle (or its major subsystems) may not perform as
the designer intended. We see from the foregoing discussion that quality is indeed
a multifaceted entity

2.5 Statistical Techniques in Quality Control

Statistical Quality Control is based on the idea that no two things are exactly alike Tries
to make identical products, their actual size will vary from small to large with most items
close to middle. Everything(manufactured or not manufactured) must be regarded as a
process and there are always variations. In a manufacturing process, variation caused
by machines, materials, methods, measurements, people, physical and organizational
environment. In non- manufacturing or business processes, people contribute a lot to
the total variation. In addition, to meth, measurement and environment. These entire
variations encountered by both manufacturing and non- manufacturing process are best
analyzed using statistical techniques, Tamini and Sebastianeill(1996).
When Statistical Quality Control is used to control operations, control charts kept
right at the jobs used. Sample products are checked from time to time and their mea-
surements are plotted on the control charts, Wiley(2007)
Control Charts shows when operations are meeting too many unacceptable products
and so tell you to reset the machines, he added. Another statistical technique that has
found wide application in quality control is acceptance sampling plan.

2.6 Types of SQC Tools

According to Wiley(2007), Statistical Quality Control has three tols for solving quality
control. They are:

• Descriptive Statistics
• Acceptance Sampling

14
 • Statistical Process Control

2.6.1 Descriptive Statistics

: These are statistics used to describe quality characteristics and relationships. These are
statistics such as the mean, standard deviation, the range and a measure of the distri-
bution of data. a. The mean : It measures the central tenency of a data. Mathematically:
n
1X
X̄ = xi (1)
n i=1

where:
X̄
P is the mean
is the sigma denoting summation or adding up sets x1: ,x2: ,...,xn:
n is the total number of obsevations

The range: It is the simplest and most straight forward measure of dispersion. It is the
difference between the maximum and minimum values in the set of data. Mathematically,

Range = [Link] − [Link] (2)

Standard Deviation: It measures the amount of data dispersion around the mean.
Mathematically, v
u n
u1 X
σ=t (xi − µ)2 (3)
n i=1

Standard Error:This is the error of the mean of the distribution of the sample mean.
It is designated by sx: .

Mathematically,
σ
σx̄ = √ (4)
n
The equation 1-4 above allows limit to be set up around the sample means to show
how much variation can be expected for a given sample size.

2.6.2 Acceptance Sampling

:It is a statistical procedure used in quality control technique when a decision on accept-
ability of a batch item has to be made from the test done on a sample items from a batch.
The decisions to accept or reject a batch of items are based on the result of the inspected
sample. This is used to determine the quality of manufactured goods after they have

15
been produced. In most cases, 100% inspection is impossible. Hence, a sample item is
inspected and quality parameters of large lots of items are estimated based on the result
of sampling plan that set the product acceptability criteria known as decision rule. It is
applied to large batches of goods that have already been produced.

2.6.3 Statistical Process Control (SPC):

Statistical Process Control (SPC) tools are used most frequently because they identify
quality problems during production process. For this reason, this project work will be
base on the application of SPC to monitor the process of sachet water production.

Additionally, Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a powerful tool in Statistical Quality

Control (SQC) for finding and solving problems to reduce variation in manufactured
products. It is also widely used for achieving process stability and improving process
capability through the reduction of variability of process in manufacturing of products.
It is customary to think of Statistical Process Control(SPC) as a set of problem solving
tools that may be applied to any process. The Major tools of SPC are:
• Control Chart
• Histogram
• Pareto chart
• Cause and effect diagram
• Scatter Diagram
• Check sheet
• Defect-concentration diagram
An equally important element of SPC is attitude, a desire of all individuals in the orga-
nization for continous improvement in quality and productivity through the systematic
reduction of variability. From this view, SPC techniques aim to monitor th production
process and also adjust the production process if necessary. This project work aims to
use the technique of SPC as a quality control tool in Adelak Water Factory to mon-
itor the production process and also re-adjust the process if the need arises from the
predetermined parameters. Furthermore, SPC can be summarized as follows:
• Quality characteritics are measured and charted
• Involves inspecting the output from a process and then make decision if necessary
• Help in identifying in-process variations.
The control chart is the most powerful tool of the SPC tools and this is the tool that
will be used for this work in the food industry.

16
2.7 Control Chart

2.8 Control Chart

A control chart is a graphical display of the average of a quality characteristics that has
been measured or computed from a sample versus the sample number or time. Often,
the samples are selected at periodic intervals, such as a few minutes or every hour. In
any production process, regardless of how well designed or carefully maintained it is, a
certain amount of inherent or natural variability always exist. This natural variability
is the cumulative effect of many small, essentially unavoidable causes. The chart con-
tains a center line (CL) that represents the average value of the quality characteristics
corresponding to the in-control state. Two other horizontal lines called the upper control
limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL) are also shown on the chart. These control
limits are chosen so that if the process is in control, nearly all of the sample points fall
between them. In general, as long as the points on the control chart are usually connected
with straight-line segments so that it is easier to visualize how the sequence of points has
evolved over time. The concept was evolved by Walter A. Shewhart of Bell Telephone
Laboraties in 1924.

Figure 2: A typical control chart

However, a point that plots outside of the control limits is interpreted as evidence
that the process is out of control and investigation and corrective action are required to
find and eliminate the assignable cause or causes responsible for this behaviour

Figure 3: A typical out-of-control chart

17
 Even if all the points plot inside the control limits, if they behave in a systematic,
non-random way,this is an indication that the process is out of control. For example, if 18
out of 20 points plotted above the center line but blow the upper control limit, we would
be very suspicious that something was wrong. If the process is in control, all plotted
points should have an essentially random pattern. Methods designed to find sequences or
non-random patterns can be applied to control chart as an aid in detecting out-of-control
conditions. A particular non-random pattern usually appears on a control chart and if
that reason can be found and eliminated, process performance can be improved.

2.9 Types of Control Chart with their Application

The different characteristics that can be measured by control charts can be divided into
two groups: variable and attribute, Reza and Payam,(2009).

2.9.1 Control Charts for Variable

Accordingly, a control chart for variables is used to monitor characteristics that can
be measured and have a continum of values, such as length,height, weight,diameter,or
volume. A sachet water factory like Adelak Water is an establishment where variable
measure can be taken, since fill volume of each sachet of water can be measured on
a scale and can take on a number of different values. Two of the most commonly used
control charts for variables (X-bar Chart and R-Chart) monitor both the central tendency
of the data (mean) and variability of the data (either the standard deviation or the range)

2.9.2 Control Charts for Attributes

On the other hand,a control chart for attributes is used to monitor characteristics that
have discrete values and can be counted, Marilyn and Robert(2007). An attribute requires
only a single decision, such as yes or no, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable or
counting each number of defects.
Due to limitation and nature of this project work coupled with the nature of the data
collected, the attribute control chart will not be considered. Hence, this work will only
be using the control chart for variables due to the aforementioned reasons.

2.10 Some Selected Research on Quality Control of Sachet Wa-

ter
Terna G.L et al., 2020 worked on a project titled ”Application of Statistical Quality Con-
trol in Monitoring the Production, Packaging, and Marketing Process of Sachet Water”.

18
The objective of this study is to apply statistical control charts in monitoring the produc-
tion, packaging and distribution or marketing processes of sachet water in Nigeria. This
paper employed statistical quality control approach to monitor process stability in a table
water manufacturing company. Quality control tools such as p-chart, u-chart, X-bar and
R charts as well as process capability chart were used to observe field data obtained from
the sachet water manufacturing company on important processes of sachet water produc-
tion and marketing for 30 working days. This was done to check if the processes were
in control or out of control and to verify the capability of the marketing process of the
product meeting preset specifications. With this, the statistical control charts suitable
for the processes were constructed using package “qcc” in R software version 3.6.1. The
results from p-chart and u-chart showed that the production and packaging process of
the product is not in control and hence the need for further investigations and corrective
measures to prevent variability in the process and thus allow improvement in the quality
of the product. Also, the results from X-bar and R charts showed that the marking
process was in statistical process control in respects of the product sales recorded by the
four independent marketers, with no assignable cause of variation. It also revealed that,
the product marketing process has a low capacity of successfully attending the preset
specification limits in respect of the product sales and hence generating low profit for the
company.

Additionally, Ochiobi C.B (2021) worked on a project titled ”Application Of Statisti-

cal Quality Control Techniques In Production Process Of Sachet Water (A Case Study Of
MA-FO Global Services Limited, Umuahia, Abia State)”. His work was concerned with
the .1 application of the statistical quality control techniques to a production process
with a view of checking the defectives of Ma-fo Global Service Limited products a case
study of Ma-fo-Global Services Limited Umuahia, Abia State, if it is under control. The
P-chart showed no significant change in the process production of defective products of
Ma-fo Global Services Limited, Umuahia, Abia State sachet water. There was no signif-
icant change observed in the non-defective products except on the P-chart for January
2011 on daily basis and this was due to assignable cause which can be eliminated. As a
result of absence of assignable cause of variation, the water is highly recommended for
drinking.

Furthermore,Abubakar Usman and Nasir Mu’Azu Kontagora (2010) worked on a

project work titled ”Statistical Process Control on Production: A Case Study of Some
Basic Chemicals Used in Pure Water Production”. To achieve his aims and objectives
data was collected from randomly selected packaged water producers referred to as “Pure
water producers” and subjected to laboratory test of the of the level of some basic chem-
icals used in the production of pure water, such as pH, conductivity (µS/cm; Lead (Pb);
Aluminum (Al) and Chloride (Cl). The test shows that most of the chemicals used are
out of process control. This is danger to health of the consumers.

Likewise, Uche J.C [Link] (2022) worked on a project titled ”Quality Assessment of

19
Sachet Water Produced in Enugu Metropolis, Enugu State, Nigeria”. The study investi-
gated the quality of some sachet water brands produced in Enugu metropolis for drinking
purpose. Five different brands of sachet water were collected from their production plant
and their physical, chemical and bacteriological qualities were examined. The results ob-
tained for physical parameters showed that turbidity was 0 NTU; total dissolved solid was
between 86.19 – 140.12 mg/L; total suspended solid, 0 mg/L; total solid 86.19 - 140.12
mg/L; electrical conductivity, 60.80 – 150.30 µ s/cm3 ; total hardness, 0 mg/L; pH, 6.90
– 7.00 and alkalinity 50 mg/L. The result of the physical and chemical parameters con-
formed to the standards established by World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigeria
standard for drinking water quality (NSDWQ). Similarly, biological contamination was
absence in all the tested water samples. Thus, the examined sachet water brands were
considered safe for consumption.

With a comprehensive understanding of the background and existing research es-

tablished in the Introduction and Literature Review, the subsequent chapter will detail
the methodology employed to address the research questions and hypotheses, laying the
groundwork for the subsequent analysis of the results.

20
 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
The use of Statistical Process Control(SPC) in quality control is the application of statis-
tical techniques to determine whether the output of a process conforms to the product or
service design. It aims at achieving good quality during manufacture or service through
prevention rather than detection. It is concerned with controlling the process that makes
the product because if the process is good then the product will automatically be good,
Kumar(2009).

Reza and Payan(2009) says Statistical Process Control is the use of valid analytical
statistical method to identify the existence of special causes of variation in a process.
Adekeye(2003) also analyzed that statistical Process Control uses simple but powerful
graphical tools to monitor the process in order to improve quality by detecting product
variability. This narrowing of the limits of variability does not stop when the product
meets specification but continues thereafter for continous improvement to make uniform
product. The objective in the SPC fundamentals is process improvement to find and
solve problems and to reduce variation.

The simple but powerful graphical tool that will be used is the control chart for
variables. It provides operating personnel a tool to identify when a special cause of
variation has entered the process so that the special cause can be eliminated (if the
special cause has a negative impact on the process) or built into the process)

3.2 Control Charts for Variables

Many quality characteristics can be expressed in terms of a numerical measurement. For
example, the diameter of a bearing could be measured with a micrometer and expressed
in millimeters. A single measurable quality characteristic, such as a dimension, weight,
or volume, is called a variable. Control charts for variables are used extensively. Control
charts are one of the primary tools used in the analize and control steps of DMAIC.
When dealing with a quality characteristic that is a variable, it is usually necessary to
monitor both the mean value of the quality characteristic and its variability. Control of
the process average or mean quality level is usually done with the control chart for means,

21
or the control chart. Process variability can be monitored with either a control chart for
the standard deviation, called the s control chart, or a control chart for the range, called
an R control chart. The R chart is more widely used. Usually, separate and R charts
are maintained for each quality characteristic of interest. The and R (or s) charts are
among the most important and useful on-line statistical process monitoring and control
techniques.

3.3 Statistical Basis of the Charts

Suppose that a quality characteristic is normally distributed with mean m and standard
deviation s, where both m and s are known. If x1 + x2 + · · · + xn is a sample of size n,
then the average
x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
x̄ = (5)
n
and we know that is normally distributed with mean m and standard deviation.
Furthermore, the probability is 1 a that any sample mean will fall between
 
σ
µ ± Zα/2 σx̄ = µ ± Zα/2 √ (6)
n
Therefore, if m and s are known, equation (6) could be used as upper and lower control
limits on a control chart for sample means. It is customary to replace Za/2 by 3, so that
three-sigma limits are employed. If a sample mean falls outside of these limits, it is an
indication that the process mean is no longer equal to µ.
We have assumed that the distribution of the quality characteristic is normal. How-
ever, the above results are still approximately correct even if the underlying distribution
is not normal, because of the central limit theorem.
In practice, we usually will not know m and s. Therefore, they must be estimated from
preliminary samples or subgroups taken when the process is thought to be in control.
These estimates should usually be based on at least 20 to 25 samples. Suppose that
m samples are available, each containing n observations on the quality characteristic.
Typically, n will be small, often either 4, 5, or 6. These small sample sizes usually result
from the construction of rational subgroups and from the fact that the sampling and
inspection costs associated with variables measurements are usually relatively large. Let
be the average of each sample. Then the best estimator of m, the process average, is the
grand average—say,
x1 + x2 + · · · + xm
x̄ = (7)
m
Thus, would be used as the center line on the chart. To construct the control limits,
we need an estimate of the standard deviation s. We may estimate s from either the
standard deviations or the ranges of the m samples. For the present, we will use the

22
range method. If x1 , x2 , ..., xn is a sample of size n, then the range of the sample is the
difference between the largest and smallest observations; that is,

R = xmax − xmin (8)

Let R1 , R2 , ..., Rm be the ranges of the m samples. The average range is

R1 + R2 + · · · + Rm
R̄ = (9)
m

We may now give the formulas for constructing the control limits on the chart. They
are as follows:

Control Limits for the x̄ Chart

UCL = x̄ + A2 R (10)

CL = x̄ (11)

UCL = x̄ − A2 R (12)

Where:

• UCL is the upper control limit,

• LCL is the lower control limit,

• CL is the center line,

• x̄ is the process mean,

• A2 is a control chart constant,

• R is the average range.

The constant A2 is tabulated for various sample sizes in statistical tables

Control Limits for the R̄ Chart

Process variability may be monitored by plotting values of the sample range R on a
control chart. The center line and control limits of the R chart are as follows:

UCL = D4 R (13)

CL = R̄ (14)

23
 UCL = D3 R (15)

Where:
• UCL is the upper control limit,
• LCL is the lower control limit,
• CL is the center line,
• x̄ is the process range,
• D4 is a control chart constant,
• D3 is a control chart constant,
• R is the average range.
The constant D3 and D4 is tabulated for various sample sizes in statistical table

3.4 Phase I Application of and R Charts

In phase I control chart usage, when preliminary samples are used to construct and
R control charts, it is customary to treat the control limits obtained from equations
(10),(11),(12) and (13),(14),(15) as trial control limits. They allow us to determine
whether the process was in control when the m initial samples were selected. To de-
termine whether the process was in control when the preliminary samples were collected,
plot the values of and R from each sample on the charts and analyze the resulting display.
If all points plot inside the control limits and no systematic behavior is evident, we con-
clude that the process was in control in the past, and the trial control limits are suitable
for controlling current or future production. It is highly desirable to have 20–25 samples
or subgroups of size n (typically n is between 3 and 5) to compute the trial control limits.
We can, of course, work with fewer data but the control limits are not as reliable.

Suppose that one or more of the values of either or R plot out of control when com-
pared to the trial control limits. Clearly, if control limits for current or future production
are to be meaningful, they must be based on data from a process that is in control.
Therefore, when the hypothesis of past control is rejected, it is necessary to revise the
trial control limits. This is done by examining each of the out-of-control points, looking
for an assignable cause. If an assignable cause is found, the point is discarded and the
trial control limits are recalculated, using only the remaining points. Then these remain-
ing points are reexamined for control. (Note that points that were in control initially
may now be out of control, because the new trial control limits will generally be tighter
than the old ones.) This process is continued until all points plot in control, at which
point the trial control limits are adopted for current use.

24
 In some cases, it may not be possible to find an assignable cause for a point that
plots out of control. There are two courses of action open to us. The first of these is to
eliminate the point, just as if an assignable cause had been found. There is no analyt-
ical justification for choosing this action, other than that points that are outside of the
control limits are likely to have been drawn from a probability distribution characteristic
of an out-of-control state. The alternative is to retain the point (or points) considering
the trial control limits as appropriate for current control. Of course, if the point really
does represent an out-of-control condition, the resulting control limits will be too wide.
However, if there are only one or two such points, this will not distort the control chart
significantly. If future samples still indicate control, then the unexplained points can
probably be safely dropped.

Occasionally, when the initial sample values of and R are plotted against the trial
control limits, many points will plot out of control. Clearly, if we arbitrarily drop the
out-of-control points, we will have an unsatisfactory situation, as few data will remain
with which we can re-compute reliable control limits. We also suspect that this approach
would ignore much useful information in the data. On the other hand, searching for an
assignable cause for each out-of-control point is unlikely to be successful. We have found
that when many of the initial samples plot out of control against the trial limits, it is
better to concentrate on the patterns on control charts formed by these points. Such
a pattern will almost always exist. Usually, the assignable cause associated with the
pattern of out-of-control points is fairly easy to identify. Removal of this process problem
usually results in a major process improvement.

3.5 Phase II Operation of the x̄ and R Charts

Once a set of reliable control limits is established, we use the control chart for monitoring
future production. This is called phase II control chart usage. Additional samples of
quality characteristics from the process will be collected after the control charts were
established and the sample values of x̄ and R plotted on the control charts immediately
after each sample is taken.

3.6 Control Limits, Specification Limits, and Natural Tolerance

Limits
There is no connection or relationship between the control limits on the x̄ and R charts
and the specification limits on the process. The control limits are driven by the natural
variability of the process (measured by the process standard deviations), that is, by the
natural tolerance limits of the process. It is customary to define the upper and lower
natural tolerance limits, say UNTL and LNTL, as 3s above and below the process mean.

25
 The specification limits, on the other hand is set at 49cl and 51cl for the lower and
lower specificication limit respectively.

Having outlined the methodology used to collect and prepare the data, the following
chapter will delve into the detailed analysis of the results, illustrating how the chosen
methods have informed the interpretation of the findings.

26
 Chapter 4

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
The fill volume of sachet water produced by Ajisope enterprise-Adelak Water was taken
as the quality characteristics to be studied. Data was collected by measuring the fill
volume of sachet water using a graduated cylinder for a period of 2 weeks.
A sub-group of 5 with 4 samples were taken daily for 5 working days up to the 50th
sub-group. Each sub-group of 4 samples were selected after every down-time over the 5
working days using simple random sampling that allows for equal chances of selection for
the sachet water produced.
Each sub-group of 4 samples were collected from a sealing machine, after which they are
measured on a graduated cylinder in centiliters. The Measuremnt are recorded for each
sachet water, entered in an excel worksheet and presented for this research work.

4.2 Phase I Data Descriptive statistics

X-bar Chart for adelak[1:25, ]

Summary of Group Statistics Value

Minimum 39.8200
1st Quartile 43.6000
Median 44.5400
Mean 44.4432
3rd Quartile 45.7200
Maximum 48.2800

Table 1: Summary of group statistics for the X-bar chart

4.3 Phase I Application of x̄ and R Charts Result

The analysis of Phase I data collected in the sachet water factory are as follows:

27
 Group Sample Size 5
Number of Groups 25
Center of Group Statistics 44.4432
Standard Deviation 18.63285

Table 2: Additional statistics for the X-bar chart

Control Limits Value
LCL (Lower Control Limit) 19.44461
UCL (Upper Control Limit) 69.44179

Table 3: Control limits for the X-bar chart

28

Figure 4: Out of control Phase I x̄ Chart

Figure 5: Out of control phase I R-chart

29
Figure 6: In control phase I x̄ chart

30
Figure 7: In control phase I R-chart

31
Figure 8: Phase II x̄ Chart

32
4.4 Phase II Application of x̄ and R Charts Result

Figure 9: phase II R-chart

33
 Chapter 5

DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion
The number of subgroups used for the construction of the trial x̄ control chart is 20,with
the centerline equal to 43.929, standard deviation equal to 19.916, the lower control limit
equal to 17.209,upper control limit equal to 70.648, number violating runs equal to 3 and
number of point beyond control limit equal to zero. Likewise, the number of subgroups
used for the construction of the trial R control chart is 20,with the centerline equal
to 45.325, standard deviation equal to 19.916, the lower control limit equal to 0,upper
control limit equal to 97.953, number violating runs equal to 5 and number of point
beyond control limit equal to zero.
The information above about the phase I control charts, clearly depict a phase I
control chart that is not under control.
Hence, we conclude that the trial control chart or the Phase I control chart is not
under control since there are 3 violating runs in the x̄ control chart and 5 violating runs
in the R control chart.
The non-random pattern or systematic behaviour exhibited by the points in the con-
trol chart is a trend or continuous movement in one direction and this is an indication of
gradual wearing out or deterioration of a tool or some other critical process component.
Since some assignable causes show up on both the x̄ and R charts, the control chart is
reconstructed after eliminating the assignable causes of variation.

Now, the Phase I control chart is fit to monitor future proccess data. Having elimi-
nated 5 assignable causes, the sub-group is reduced to 45 and the revised Phase I control
chart is used to monitor/ control the remaining subgroup. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show
an out-of-control process for the remaining subgroups.

5.2 Conclusion
The Phase I control charts analysis reveals that both the x̄ and R control charts indicate
an out-of-control process. For the x̄ control chart, the centerline is 43.929 with a standard
deviation of 19.916, a lower control limit (LCL) of 17.209, and an upper control limit
(UCL) of 70.648. The chart shows 3 violating runs and no points beyond the control
limits. Similarly, the R control chart has a centerline of 45.325, a standard deviation of

34
19.916, an LCL of 0, and a UCL of 97.953, with 5 violating runs and no points beyond
the control limits.
These violations suggest non-random patterns, such as trends or continuous move-
ments in one direction, indicating potential issues like tool deterioration or other critical
process component failures. After addressing these assignable causes and reducing the
subgroup size to 45, the revised Phase I control chart was applied. Despite these ad-
justments, Figures 8 and 9 show that the remaining subgroups still exhibit signs of an
out-of-control process. This indicates that further investigation and process improve-
ments are needed to stabilize and control the process effectively.

5.3 Summary
Quality management is considered a fundamental value for any organization aiming to
maintain a competitive edge, whether at the process level, in services, or in products.
Achieving maximum customer satisfaction through high-quality products or services al-
lows an organization to distinguish itself from competitors. Experience has shown that
quality is crucial for business success and growth, making it essential for both individuals
and organizations to prioritize quality. Research indicates that statistical quality control
offers the statistical methods needed to ensure and enhance product quality. This project
focuses on Adelak, employing statistical techniques to monitor their production (filling)
process and draw relevant conclusions. The research is based on the materials covered
in a Bachelor Degree -level course titled Quality Control at Federal University of Agri-
culture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. To meet the objectives of this study, quality control data
was collected from the organization’s Quality Control department, and statistical meth-
ods were applied to analyze this data, including establishing control limits and creating
charts for visual representation.

5.4 Recommendation
The researcher strongly recommends based on the finding and analysis carried out in this
research work that:

1. Quality control research work should be extended to other section of the organiza-
tion aside the filling process e.g. the production process, delivery process etc.

2. Since the causes of variation as established by this project work shown by R-charts
can be attributed to assignable cause, it is therefore recommended that the opera-
tors and personnel should be well trained, educated and sensitized so as to sustain
the quality of their products.

3. Out of control samples as shown by R-charts which are due to assignable causes
should be subjected to process monitoring and be fix appropriately

35
4. Management, staff and individual of the organization should be sensitize, enlighten
on how important is the concept of quality to their organization performance in the
competitive market by taking quality control courses on scheduling bases.

36
 REFERENCES
1. Alford, L. P., & Beatty, H. R. (1951). Principles of industrial management (Rev.
ed.). Ronald Press Company.

2. Peters, T. J., & Waterman, R. H. (1982). In search of excellence: Lessons from

America’s best-run companies. Harper & Row.

3. Ieren, T. G., Kuje, S., Asongo, A. I., & Eraikhuemen, I. B. (2020). Application of
statistical quality control in monitoring the production, packaging, and marketing
process of sachet water. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports, 26(9), 32-45.
[Link]

4. OCHIOBI, B (2021). Application Of Statistical Quality Control Techniques In Pro-

duction Process Of Sachet Water (A Case Study Of MA-FO Global Services Lim-
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[Link]
techniques-in-production-process-of-sachet-water-a-case-study-of-ma-fo-global-services-
limited-umuahia-abia-state-7-2

5. Usman, A., & Kontagora, N. M. (2010). Statistical process control on production:

A case study of some basic chemicals used in pure water production. Pakistan
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6. Miner, C. A., Tagurum, Y. O., Hassan, Z., Afolaranmi, T. O., Bello, D. A., Dakhin,
A., & Zoakah, A. I. (2014). Sachet water: Prevalence of use, perception, and quality
in a community of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State. African
Journals Online. Retrieved from [Link]

7. Niavand, H., & Tajeri, M. (2014). Statistical control process: A historical per-
spective. International Journal of Science and Modern Engineering (IJISME), 2(2),
6-10. ISSN: 2319-6386. Retrieved from [Link]

8. Tamini N. and Sebastianelli .R. (1996). How firms define and measure quality.
Production and Inventory Management Journal. Third Quarter. Vol. 37 No. 3 pp.
34- 39

9. Wiley R.K., Dan R.R and Sander S.R. (2007). Statistical Quality Control. 3rd
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37
 APPENDIX A

Table 4: Volume fill data

Subgroup N1 N2 N3 N4

1 53.2 51.8 48.4 46.7

2 50.1 48.8 52.1 46.5

3 46.0 50.4 54.9 58.7

4 53.4 58.1 58.4 46.6

5 45.8 48.8 46.1 53.4

6.0 54.0 47.0 53.5 57.5

7.0 57.2 46.1 56.2 51.6

8.0 58.4 49.2 49.8 57.3

9.0 54.6 56.6 58.9 49.5

10.0 52.2 58.2 54.7 58.2

11.0 56.4 51.4 47.0 53.9

12.0 50.6 54.5 58.0 57.6

13.0 47.6 47.0 52.2 49.6

14.0 57.7 49.0 49.0 53.7

15.0 54.6 57.7 46.3 48.7

16.0 46.7 54.3 47.0 53.3

17.0 48.1 57.0 54.0 51.8

18.0 54.3 58.5 58.4 48.0

19.0 57.1 49.4 49.6 45.6

20.0 55.7 53.1 47.0 55.5

21.0 56.1 56.7 53.4 54.2

38
Subgroup N1 N2 N3 N4

22.0 49.6 56.6 48.6 49.4

23.0 49.9 50.6 50.8 50.2

24.0 55.3 47.1 49.1 52.0

25.0 58.5 46.3 54.4 55.8

26.0 56.4 50.3 51.6 56.0

27.0 49.1 49.0 51.4 51.1

28.0 48.3 56.9 55.6 47.8

29.0 52.1 55.3 58.7 54.7

30.0 47.1 56.5 51.1 58.4

31.0 51.0 58.0 51.4 54.5

32.0 56.2 55.3 56.3 58.4

33.0 53.6 53.8 60.3 54.3

34.0 55.2 53.9 54.2 57.8

35.0 53.0 57.3 57.3 60.4

36.0 54.1 54.8 60.0 58.8

37.0 52.6 59.5 53.4 53.5

38.0 53.1 56.1 46.9 49.4

39.0 54.3 55.2 55.4 48.3

40.0 48.4 50.4 54.1 53.4

41.0 51.0 57.6 54.2 55.9

42.0 51.5 54.3 58.3 55.6

43.0 53.3 48.6 54.6 51.6

44.0 49.7 47.3 55.7 58.0

45.0 49.2 58.2 47.3 53.0

39
Subgroup N1 N2 N3 N4

46.0 56.2 52.7 52.3 50.0

47.0 54.4 49.9 50.0 58.1

48.0 47.2 51.3 55.2 56.7

49.0 48.6 54.6 49.0 52.0

50.0 47.6 48.1 51.5 52.7

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 APPENDIX B

adelak <- [Link]("C:\\Users\\USER\\Desktop\\Ayomide [Link]", header = TRUE)

sqc <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "xbar", nsigmas = 3)
sqc1 <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "R", nsigmas = 3)
sqc <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "xbar", nsigmas = 3)
sqc1 <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "R", nsigmas = 3)
sqc <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "xbar", nsigmas = 3,newdata = adelak[26:45,])
sqc1 <- qcc(adelak[1:20,], type = "R", nsigmas = 3, newdata = adelak[26:45,])

41