TAKSH-SHILA MODEL SR. SEC.
SCHOOL
SECTOR-3, FARIDABAD
PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
Academic Session: 2025-2026
AC GENERATOR AND
TRANSFORMER
A Detailed Study on Electromagnetic Induction & Power Systems
Submitted By:
Guided By:
Ayush Yadav
Mr. Hemraj Sir
Roll No: 31610106
(PGT Physics)
Class: XII (Science)
Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ayush Yadav, a student of class XII (Science), Roll No: 31610106,
of Taksh-Shila Model Sr. Sec. School, Sector-3, Faridabad, has successfully completed the
Physics Investigatory Project on the topic "AC Generator and Transformer" during
the academic session 2025-2026.
The project is the result of his own work and investigation and satisfies the require-
ments for the All India Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE) of the Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in the subject of Physics.
I have supervised his work at every stage and found his approach to be systematic,
scientific, and highly commendable.
Internal Examiner Principal External Examiner
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my Physics teacher, Mr. Hemraj Sir, for
his constant guidance, mentorship, and invaluable feedback throughout this project. His
expertise helped me understand the relationship between Electromagnetic Induction and
power distribution.
I am also deeply grateful to our Principal for providing the necessary infrastructure
and school laboratory facilities that were essential for the successful completion of this
project.
My heartfelt thanks go out to my parents for their unwavering support and encourage-
ment. I also want to thank my classmates for their constructive feedback and for helping
me gather relevant data from various sources.
Finally, I thank the Almighty for giving me the strength and patience to complete this
investigatory work with sincerity and dedication.
Ayush Yadav
XII Science
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Contents
1 Introduction 4
2 Fundamental Principle 5
2.1 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 AC Generator: Construction Detail 6
3.1 1. The Armature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 2. Field Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 AC Generator: The Output Mechanism 7
4.1 3. Slip Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 4. Carbon Brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 5. Prime Mover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5 Working Mechanism of AC Generator 8
6 Mathematical Theory of AC Generator 9
7 Graphical Analysis of AC Output 10
7.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8 Introduction to Transformers 11
9 Transformer: Detailed Construction 12
9.1 1. The Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9.2 2. Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10 Transformer Principle and Working 13
10.1 Mutual Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10.2 Mathematical Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
11 Energy Losses in Machines 14
12 Real World Applications 15
12.1 1. Power Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
12.2 2. Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
13 Conclusion 16
14 Bibliography 17
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Introduction
Electrical energy is the backbone of modern civilization. From the smallest mobile device
to the largest industrial machinery, everything depends on a steady supply of power.
However, energy production is a complex process. The electricity we use at home is
rarely produced locally.
The process of bringing electricity into our lives involves two key devices: the AC
Generator and the Transformer. The AC Generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy using electromagnetic principles, while the Transformer allows us to
transmit this energy efficiently over hundreds of miles by stepping up or down the voltage.
In this project, we will investigate the fundamental physics behind these devices, their
construction, their mathematical working, and the energy losses that occur during their
operation. We will see how Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction literally "lit
up" the world and revolutionized human history.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Fundamental Principle
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
The primary principle behind both the AC Generator and the Transformer is Electro-
magnetic Induction, discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.
Faraday’s Laws: 1. Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an
induced EMF is produced in the circuit. 2. The magnitude of this induced EMF is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
Mathematical Formulation: If Φ is the magnetic flux linked with N turns, then
the induced EMF e is:
dΦ
e = −N
dt
The negative sign represents Lenz’s Law, which states that the direction of the induced
current is such that it opposes the change that produced it. This principle allows me-
chanical rotation to create electric flow in a generator.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
AC Generator: Construction Detail
Armature Coil (ABCD)
N S
1. The Armature
The armature is the rotating part of the generator. It consists of a rectangular coil ABCD
made of many turns of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron core.
• The soft iron core increases the magnetic flux density.
• Lamination of the core reduces eddy current losses.
2. Field Magnets
These are strong permanent magnets or electromagnets with concave poles to provide a
strong radial magnetic field.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
AC Generator: The Output Mechanism
3. Slip Rings
Unlike DC generators, AC generators use two continuous metal rings called **Slip Rings**
(R1 and R2 ). These rings are fixed to the same shaft as the armature coil and rotate along
with it. Each end of the armature coil is connected to one slip ring.
4. Carbon Brushes
Two stationary carbon brushes (B1 and B2 ) remain in constant contact with the rotating
slip rings. These brushes collect the induced current from the rotating coil and transfer
it to the stationary external circuit.
5. Prime Mover
The mechanical energy needed to rotate the armature is provided by a **Prime Mover**,
such as a water turbine (in hydroelectric plants), a steam turbine (in thermal plants), or
an internal combustion engine (in portable generators).
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Working Mechanism of AC Generator
The armature coil is rotated inside the magnetic field. As the coil rotates, the angle θ
between the field lines and the plane of the coil changes continuously.
1. **Initial Position (0◦ ):** The coil is perpendicular to the field. Flux is max, but
the rate of change is zero. No EMF is induced.
2. **First Quarter (0 to 90◦ ):** Arm AB moves up and CD moves down. According
to **Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule**, current flows from A to B and C to D. The EMF
reaches its peak value at 90◦ .
3. **Second Half (180 to 360◦ ):** After half a rotation, arm CD moves up and AB
moves down. The direction of the induced current reverses. Now it flows from D to C
and B to A.
This periodic reversal of current direction produces **Alternating Current (AC)**.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Mathematical Theory of AC Generator
Let N = Number of turns, A = Area of coil, B = Magnetic field, ω = Angular speed.
The magnetic flux Φ at any time t is:
Φ = N BA cos(ωt)
According to Faraday’s Law:
dΦ d
e=− = − [N BA cos(ωt)]
dt dt
e = N BAω sin(ωt)
Let e0 = N BAω be the peak EMF.
e = e0 sin(ωt)
This equation proves that the output is a sinusoidal wave. If we increase the number
of turns or the speed of rotation, the output voltage increases.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Graphical Analysis of AC Output
EMF (e)
+e0
2π (T)
Time (t)
π (T/2)
−e0
Observations
• The EMF alternates between positive and negative peaks.
• Frequency f = ω/2π. In India, f = 50 Hz.
√
• The effective value is the RMS value: erms = e0 / 2.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Introduction to Transformers
A Transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another through the process of mutual induction. It is used to change the voltage level
without changing the frequency.
Transformers are essential for the power grid because: 1. Electricity is generated at
low voltages (around 11kV). 2. For long-distance transmission, it must be stepped up to
high voltages (like 400kV) to reduce heat loss in cables. 3. At the consumer end, it must
be stepped down to 220V for safety.
Without transformers, delivering electricity to cities thousands of kilometers away
from power plants would be impossible.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Transformer: Detailed Construction
Primary (Np ) Secondary (Ns )
Laminated Soft Iron Core
1. The Core
Made of soft iron to provide a high permeability path for magnetic flux. It is laminated
to prevent **Eddy Current** losses.
2. Windings
- **Primary:** Connected to input AC. - **Secondary:** Connected to the output load.
Coils are made of high-grade copper to minimize resistance.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Transformer Principle and Working
Mutual Induction
When AC flows in the primary coil, it creates a changing magnetic field in the core. This
changing flux is linked with the secondary coil, inducing an EMF in it.
Mathematical Formulae
Induced EMF in Primary: ep = −Np dΦ
dt
Induced EMF in Secondary: es = −Ns dΦ
dt
By dividing:
es Ns
= =K
ep Np
K is the **Transformation Ratio**. - If K > 1 (Ns > Np ): **Step-up Transformer**. -
If K < 1 (Ns < Np ): **Step-down Transformer**.
In an ideal transformer: Vp Ip = Vs Is .
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Energy Losses in Machines
Efficiency is never 100%. Energy is lost in these ways:
1. **Copper Loss:** Heat generated in windings (I 2 R). Reduced by using thick
wires. 2. **Iron Loss (Eddy Currents):** Circular currents in the core. Reduced by
**lamination**. 3. **Hysteresis Loss:** Energy spent in magnetizing/demagnetizing the
core. Reduced by using **Soft Iron**. 4. **Flux Leakage:** Not all flux from primary
reaches secondary. Reduced by better core design. 5. **Humming Loss:** Mechanical
vibrations of the core produce sound energy, wasting electrical energy.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Real World Applications
1. Power Distribution
- Generators at power plants produce 11kV. - Step-up transformers increase it to 400kV
for transmission. - Sub-stations step it down to 11kV and finally to 220V for homes.
2. Electronics
- Mobile chargers use step-down transformers to get 5V DC. - Microwave ovens use step-
up transformers for the magnetron. - Welding machines use high current (step-down)
transformers. - Television sets and computers use transformers for internal power supplies.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Conclusion
In this project, we have analyzed the two pillars of electrical engineering: the AC Gener-
ator and the Transformer. We saw how mechanical energy is transformed into electricity
and how that electricity is modified for safe usage.
The discovery of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday changed the course of
human history. Without these devices, the industrial revolution and the digital age would
not have been possible. As we look toward a future of green energy, these same principles
are used in wind turbines and EV chargers, proving that the physics of the 19th century
remains the foundation of the 21st century.
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Physics Investigatory Project XII Science
Bibliography
The following resources were used for research and data collection:
1. NCERT Physics Textbook - Class XII, Part-1.
2. Modern’s ABC of Physics by Satish K. Gupta.
3. Concepts of Physics (Vol 2) by Dr. H.C. Verma.
4. New Simplified Physics by S.L. Arora.
5. [Link] - Articles on "Alternators" and "Transformers".
6. Britannica Encyclopedia - Historical data on Faraday and Tesla.
— End of Project Report —
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