Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Computer Science
Programming Concepts
Contents
Variables & Constants
Data Types
Input & Output
Sequence
Selection
Iteration
Totalling & Counting
String Handling
Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators
Procedures & Functions
Local & Global Variables
Library Routines
Maintaining Programs

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 Variables & Constants
Your notes
Variables & Constants
What is a variable?
A variable is an identifier that can change in the lifetime of a program
Identifiers should be:
In mixed case (Pascal case)
Only contain letters (A-Z, a-z)
Only contain digits (0-9)
Start with a capital letter and not a digit
A variable can be associated a datatype when it is declared
When a variable is declared, memory is allocated based on the data type indicated

Pseudocode

DECLARE <identifier> : <datatype>

DECLARE Age : INTEGER

DECLARE Price : REAL

DECLARE GameOver : BOOLEAN

Python

score = int() # whole number

cost = float() # decimal number

light = bool() # data can only have one or two values

What is a constant?
A constant is an identifier set once in the lifetime of a program
Constants are generally named in all uppercase characters
Constants aid the readability and maintainability

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If a constant needs to be changed, it should only need to be altered in one place in the
whole program
Your notes
Pseudocode

CONSTANT <identifier> ← <value>

CONSTANT PI ← 3.142

CONSTANT PASSWORD ← "letmein"

CONSTANT HIGHSCORE ← 9999

Python

PI = 3.142

VAT = 0.20

PASSWORD = "letmein"

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 Data Types
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Data Types
What is a data type?
A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of data they
represent
Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a program
The basic data types include:

Data type Used for Pseudocode Example

Integer Whole numbers INTEGER 10, -5, 0

Real Numbers with a fractional part REAL 3.14, -2.5, 0.0

(decimal)

Character Single character CHAR 'a', 'B', '6', '£'

String Sequence of characters STRING "Hello world", "ABC",

"@#!%"

Boolean True or false values BOOLEAN True, False

It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure accuracy
and efficiency in the program
Data types can be changed within a program, this is called casting

Programming data types

Data type Pseudocode Python

Integer Number ← 5 number = 5

Real RealNumber ← 3.14 realNumber = 3.14

Character FirstNameInitial ← 'a' firstNameInitial = 'a'

String Password ← "letmein" password = "letmein"

Boolean LightSensor ← True lightSensor = True

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 Your notes
Worked Example
Name and describe the most appropriate programming data type for each of the
examples of data given. Each data type must be different
[6]
Data: 83
Data: myemail@[Link]
Data: True
Answers
Data type name: Integer [1]
Data type description: The number is a whole number [1]
Data type name: String [1]
Data type description: It is a group of characters [1]
Data type name: Boolean [1]
Data type description: The value is True (or could be False) [1]

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 Input & Output
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Input & Output
What is an input?
An input is a value that is read from an input device and then processed by a computer
program
Typical input devices include:
Keyboards - Typing text
Mice - Selecting item, clicking buttons
Sensors - Reading data from sensors such as temperature, pressure or motion
Microphone - Capturing audio, speech recognition
Without inputs, programs are not useful as they can't interact with the outside
world and always produce the same result
In programming the keyboard is considered the standard for user input
If the command 'INPUT' is executed, a program will wait for the user to type a sequence
of characters
In other programming languages different command words can be used

Examples
Pseudocode (INPUT <identifier>) Python

INPUT Name name=input("Enter your name: ")

IF Name ← "James" OR Name ← "Rob" THEN... if name == "James" or name == "Rob":

What is an output?
An output is a value sent to an output device from a computer program
Typical output devices include:
Monitor - Displaying text, images or graphics
Speaker - Playing audio
Printer - Creating physical copies of documents or images
In programming the monitor is considered the standard for user output
If the command 'OUTPUT' is executed, a program will output to the screen
In other programming languages different command words can be used

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Examples
Pseudocode (OUTPUT <identifier(s)>) Python Your notes

INPUT Name name=input("Enter your name: ")

IF Name ← "James" OR Name ← "Rob" THEN if name == "James" or name == "Rob":

OUTPUT "Great names!" print("Great names!")

INPUT Name name=input("Enter your name: ")

IF Name ← "James" OR Name ← "Rob" THEN if name == "James" or name == "Rob":

OUTPUT "Love the name ", Name print("Love the name "+name)

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 Sequence
Your notes
Sequence
What is sequence?
Sequence refers to lines of code which are run one line at a time
The lines of code are run in the order that they written from the first line of code to the
last line of code
Sequence is crucial to the flow of a program, any instructions out of sequence can lead
to unexpected behaviour or errors

Example 1
A simple program to ask a user to input two numbers, number two is subtracted from
number one and the result is outputted

Line Pseudocode

01 OUTPUT "Enter the first number"

02 INPUT Num1

03 OUTPUT "Enter the second number"

04 INPUT Num2

05 Result ← Num1 - Num2

06 OUTPUT Result

A simple swap of line 01 and line 02 would lead to an unexpected behaviour, the user
would be prompted to input information without knowing what they should enter

Example 2
Python example

This function calculates the area of a rectangle

Inputs:
length: The length of the rectangle
width: The width of the rectangle
Returns:

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 The area of the rectangle

def calculate_area(length, width):

Your notes
return area
area = length * width

# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------

length = 5
width = 3
correct_area = calculate_area(length, width)
print(f"Correct area (length * width): {correct_area}")

In the example, the sequence of instructions is wrong and would cause a runtime error
In the calculate_area() function a value is returned before it is assigned
The correct sequence is:
area = length * width
return area

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 Selection
Your notes
What is Selection?
Selection is when the flow of a program is changed, depending on a set of conditions
The outcome of this condition will then determine which lines or block of code is run
next
Selection is used for validation, calculation and making sense of a user's choices
There are two ways to write selection statements:
if... then... else...
case...

If Statements
What is an If statement?
As If statements allow you to execute a set of instructions if a condition is true
They have the following syntax:

IF <condition>
THEN
<statement>
ENDIF
A detailed look at a Python IF statement:

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Example
Concept Pseudocode Python Your notes

IF-THEN-ELSE IF Answer ← "Yes" if answer == "Yes":

THEN print("Correct")
OUTPUT "Correct" elif answer == "No":
ELSE print("Wrong")
OUTPUT "Wrong" else:
ENDIF print("Error")

Nested Selection
What is nested selection?
Nested selection is a selection statement within a selection statement, e.g. an If inside
of another If
Nested means to be 'stored inside the other'

Example
Pseudocode

IF Player2Score > Player1Score

THEN
IF Player2Score > HighScore
THEN
OUTPUT Player2, " is champion and highest scorer"
ELSE
OUTPUT Player2, " is the new champion"
ENDIF
ELSE
OUTPUT Player1, " is still the champion"
IF Player1Score > HighScore
THEN
OUTPUT Player1, " is also the highest scorer"
ENDIF
ENDIF

Python

# Prompt the user to enter a number

print("Enter a number: ")
test_score = int(input())

# Outer statement to check if the test_score is above 40

if test_score > 40:
# Inner statement to assign the result from the test
if test_score > 70:
result = "Distinction"
elif test_score > 55:

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 result = "Merit"
else:
result = "Pass" Your notes
else:
result = "Fail"

# Output the result

print(result)

Case Statements
What is a case statement?
A case statement can mean less code but it only useful when comparing multiple values
of the same variable
If statements are more flexible and are generally used more in languages such as Python
The format of a CASE statement is:
CASE OF <identifier>
<value 1> : <statement>
<value 2>: <statement>
....
OTHERWISE <statement>
ENDCASE

Concept Pseudocode Python

CASE INPUT Move day = "Sat"

match day:
CASE OF Move case "Sat":
'W' : Position ← Position - 10 print("Saturday")
'E' : Position ← Position + 10 case "Sun":
'A' : Position ← Position - 1 print("Sunday")
'D' : Position ← Position + 1 case _:
OTHERWISE print("Weekday")
OUTPUT "Beep"
ENDCASE

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure to include all necessary components in the selection statement:
the condition,
the statement(s) to execute when the condition is true
any optional statements to execute when the condition is false
Use proper indentation to make the code easier to read and understand
Be careful with the syntax of the programming language being used, as it may
differ slightly between languages

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 Make sure to test the selection statement with various input values to ensure that
it works as expected
Your notes

Worked Example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 3 numbers
Outputs the largest of the three numbers
[3]
Exemplar answer

Pseudocode
INPUT A
INPUT B
INPUT C

IF A >= B AND A >= C THEN

OUTPUT A
ELSE IF B >= A AND B >= C THEN
OUTPUT B
ELSE
OUTPUT C
ENDIF

Python
if A > B and A > C:
print(A)
elif B > C:
print(B)
else:
print(C)

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 Iteration
Your notes
What is iteration?
Iteration is repeating a line or a block of code using a loop
Iteration can be:
Count controlled
Condition controlled
Nested

Count Controlled Loops

What is a count controlled loop?
A count controlled loop is when the code is repeated a fixed number of times (e.g. using
a for loop)
A count controlled loop can be written as:

FOR <identifier> ← <value1> TO <value2>

<statements>
NEXT <identifier>
Identifiers must be an integer data type
It uses a counter variable that is incremented or decremented after each iteration
This can be written as:

FOR <identifier> ← <value1> TO <value2> STEP <increment>

<statements>
NEXT <identifier>
A detailed look at a Python FOR statement:

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 Your notes

Examples
Iteration Pseudocode Python

Count controlled FOR X ← 1 TO 10 for x in range(10):

OUTPUT "Hello" print("Hello")
NEXT X

This will print the word "Hello" 10 times

FOR X ← 2 TO 10 STEP 2 for x in range(2,12,2):

OUTPUT X print(x)
NEXT X # Python range function excludes end value

This will print the even numbers from 2 to 10 inclusive

FOR X ← 10 TO 0 STEP -1 for x in range(10,-1,-1):

OUTPUT X print(x)
NEXT X # Python range function excludes end value

This will print the numbers from 10 to 0 inclusive

Condition Controlled Loops

What is a condition controlled loop?
A condition controlled loop is when the code is repeated until a condition is met
There are two types of condition controlled loops:
Post-condition (REPEAT)
Pre-condition (WHILE)

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Post-condition loops (REPEAT)
A post-condition loop is executed at least once Your notes
The condition must be an expression that evaluates to a Boolean (True/False)
The condition is tested after the statements are executed and only stops once the
condition is evaluated to True
It can be written as:

REPEAT
<statement>
UNTIL <condition>

Iteration Pseudocode Python

Post-condition REPEAT # NOT USED IN PYTHON

INPUT Colour
UNTIL Colour ← "red"

REPEAT # NOT USED IN PYTHON

INPUT Guess
UNTIL Guess ← 42

Pre-condition loops (WHILE)

The condition must be an expression that evaluates to a Boolean (True/False)
The condition is tested and statements are only executed if the condition evaluates to
True
After statements have been executed the condition is tested again
The loop ends when the condition evaluates to False
It can be written as:

WHILE <condition> DO
<statements>
ENDWHILE
A detailed look at a Python WHILE statement:

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 Your notes

Iteration Pseudocode Python

Pre- WHILE Colour != "Red" DO while colour != "Red":

condition INPUT Colour colour = input("New colour")
ENDWHILE

INPUT Temperature temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

WHILE Temperature > 37 DO while temperature > 37:
OUTPUT "Patient has a fever" print("Patient has a fever")
INPUT temperature temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))
END WHILE

Nested Iteration
What is nested selection?
Nested iteration is a loop within a loop, e.g. a FOR inside of another FOR
Nested means to be 'stored inside the other'

Example
Pseudocode

Total ← 0

FOR Row ← 1 TO MaxRow

RowTotal ← 0

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 FOR Column ← 1 TO 10
RowTotal ← RowTotal + Amount[Row, Column] Your notes
NEXT Column

OUTPUT "Total for Row ", Row, " is ", RowTotal

Total ← Total + RowTotal

NEXT Row

OUTPUT "The grand total is ", Total

Python

# Program to print a multiplication table up to a given number

# Prompt the user to enter a number

number = int(input("Enter a number: "))

# Set the initial value of the counter for the outer loop
outer_counter = 1

# Outer loop to iterate through the multiplication table

while outer_counter <= number:
# Set the initial value of the counter for the inner loop
inner_counter = 1

# Inner loop to print the multiplication table for the current number
while inner_counter <= 10:
# Calculate the product of the outer and inner counters
product = outer_counter * inner_counter

# Print the multiplication table entry

print(outer_counter, "x", inner_counter, "=", product)

# Increment the inner counter

inner_counter = inner_counter + 1

# Move to the next number in the multiplication table

outer_counter = outer_counter + 1

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 Totalling & Counting
Your notes
Totalling & Counting
How do you use totalling in a program?
Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop
A total variable is set to 0 at the beginning of the program and then updated within a
loop, such as:

Pseudocode Python

Total ← 0 total = 0
FOR I ← 1 to 10 for i in range(1, 11):
INPUT Num num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
TOTAL ← TOTAL + Num total = total + num
NEXT I print("Total:", total)
OUTPUT Total

How do you use counting in a program?

Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event occurs
A count variable is set to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:

Pseudocode Python

Count ← 0 count = 0
FOR I ← 1 to 10 for i in range(1, 11):
INPUT Num num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
IF Num > 5 if num > 5:
THEN count = count + 1
Count ← Count + 1 print("Count:", count)
ENDIF
NEXT I
OUTPUT Count

Worked Example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 20 numbers
Outputs how many of these numbers are greater than 50
[3]
Answer

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Count ← 0
FOR x ← 1 TO 20 [1]
INPUT Number Your notes
IF Number > 50
THEN
Count ← Count + 1 [1]
NEXT x
OUTPUT Count [1]

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 String Handling
Your notes
String Handling
What is string manipulation?
String manipulation is the use of programming techniques to modify, analyse or extract
information from a string
Examples of string manipulation include:
Case conversion (modify)
Length (analyse)
Substrings (extract)

Case conversion
The ability to change a string from one case to another, for example, lower case to
upper case

Function Pseudocode Python Output

Uppercase Name ← "Sarah" Name = "Sarah" "SARAH"

OUTPUT UCASE(Name) print([Link]())

Lowercase Name ← "SARAH" Name = "SARAH" "sarah"

OUTPUT LCASE(Name) print([Link]())

Length
The ability to count the number of characters in a string, for example, checking a
password meets the minimum requirement of 8 characters

Pseudocode Python Output

Password ← "letmein" Password = "letmein" 7

OUTPUT LENGTH(Password) print(len(Password))

Password ← "letmein" Password = "letmein" "Password too short"

IF LENGTH(Password) >= 8 if len(Password) >= 8:
THEN print("Password accepted")
OUTPUT "Password accepted" else:
ELSE print("Password too short")
OUTPUT "Password too short"
ENDIF

Substring

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 The ability to extract a sequence of characters from a larger string in order to be used
by another function in the program, for example, data validation or combining it with
other strings Your notes
Extracting substrings is performed using 'slicing', using specific start and end to slice
out the desired characters
Substring has a start position of 1 in pseudocode and 0 in Python

Pseudocode Python Output

Word ← "Revision" Word = "Revision" "Rev"

OUTPUT SUBSTRING(Word, 1, 3) print(Word[0:2])

Word ← "Revision" Word = "Revision" "visi"

OUTPUT SUBSTRING(Word, 3, 6) print(Word[2:5])

Worked Example
The function Length(x) finds the length of a string x. The function substring(x,y,z) finds
a substring of x starting at position y and z characters long. The first character in x is in
position 1.
Write pseudocode statements to:
Store the string “Save my exams” in x
Find the length of the string and output it
Extract the word exams from the string and output it
[6]
Answer
X ← "Save my exams"

# [1] for storing string in X

OUTPUT LENGTH(X)

# [1] for calling the function length. [1] for using the correct parameter X

Y←9

Z←5

OUTPUT SUBSTRING(X,Y,Z)

# [1] for using the substring function.

# [1] for correct parameters

# [1] for outputting length and substring return values

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 Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators
Your notes
What is an operator?
An operator is a symbol used to instruct a computer to perform a specific operation on
one or more values
Examples of common operators include:
Arithmetic
Logical
Boolean

Arithmetic Operators
Operator Pseudocode Python

Addition + +

Subtraction - -

Multiplication * *

Division / /

Modulus (remainder after division) MOD %

Quotient (whole number division) DIV //

Exponentiation (to the power of) ^ **

To demonstrate the use of common arithmetic operators, three sample programs

written in Python are given below
Comments have been included to help understand how the arithmetic operators are
being used
Arithmetic operators #1 - a simple program to calculate if a user entered number is
odd or even
Arithmetic operators #2 - a simple program to calculate the area of a circle from a
user inputted radius
Arithmetic operators #3 - a simple program that generates 5 maths questions
based on user inputs and gives a score of how many were correctly answered at the
end

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 Python code
Your notes
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Arithmetic operators #1
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Get the user to input a number
user_input = int(input("Enter a number: "))

# If the remainder of the number divided by 2 is 0, the number is even

if user_input % 2 == 0:
print("The number is even.")
else:
print("The number is odd.")

# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Arithmetic operators #2
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Get the radius from the user
radius = float(input("Enter the radius of the circle: "))

# Calculate the area of the circle

area = 3.14159 * radius ** 2

# Display the calculated area

print("The area of the circle with radius", radius, "is", area)

# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Arithmetic operators #3
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Set the score to 0
score = 0

# Loop 5 times
for x in range(5):
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
operator = input("Enter the operator (+, -, *): ")
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
user_answer = int(input("What is " + str(num1) + " " + str(operator) + " " + str(num2) + "? "))

# Check the answer and update the score

if operator == '+':
correct_answer = num1 + num2
elif operator == '-':
correct_answer = num1 - num2
elif operator == '*':
correct_answer = num1 * num2
else:
print("Invalid operator!")
continue

if user_answer == correct_answer:
score = score + 1
else:
print("Sorry, that's incorrect.")

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# Display the final score
print("Your score is:", score)
Your notes

Logical Operators
Operator Pseudocode Python

Equal to == ==

Not equal to <> !=

Less than < <

Less than or equal to <= <=

Greater than > >

Greater than or equal to >= >=

Boolean Operators
A Boolean operators is a logical operator that can be used to compare two or more
values and return a Boolean value (True or False) based on the comparison
There are 3 main Boolean values:
AND: Returns True if both conditions are True
OR: Returns True if one or both conditions are True
NOT: Returns the opposite of the condition (True if False, False if True)
To demonstrate the use of common Boolean operators, three sample programs written
in Python are given below
Comments have been included to help understand how the Boolean operators are
being used
Common Boolean operators #1 - a simple program that assigns Boolean values to
two variables and outputs basic comparisons
Common Boolean operators #2 - a simple program to output a grade based on a
users score
Common Boolean operators #3 - a simple program reads a text files and searches
for an inputted score

Python code

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# -----------------------------------------------------------
# Common Boolean operators #1
# ----------------------------------------------------------- Your notes
# Assign a Boolean value to a and b
a = True
b = False

# Print the result of a and b

print("a and b:", a and b)
# Print the result of a or b
print("a or b:", a or b)
# Print the result of not a
print("not a:", not a)

# -----------------------------------------------------------
# Common Boolean operators #2
# -----------------------------------------------------------
# Take input for the score from the user
score = int(input("Enter the score: "))

# Compare the score and output the corresponding grade

if score >= 90 and score <= 100:
print("Grade: A")
elif score >= 80 and score < 90:
print("Grade: B")
elif score >= 70 and score < 80:
print("Grade: C")
elif score < 70:
print("Fail")

# -----------------------------------------------------------
# Common Boolean operators #3
# -----------------------------------------------------------
# Open the file for reading
try:
file = open("[Link]", "r")

# Set flags to false

end_of_file = False
found = False
score = input("Enter a score: ")

# While it's not the end of the file and the score has not been found
while not end_of_file and not found:
# Read the line
scores = [Link]().strip()

# If the line equals the score

if score == str(scores):
found = True
print("Score found")

# If the line is empty (i.e., end of file)

if scores == "":
end_of_file = True
if not found:

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 print("Score not found")

# Close the file after reading Your notes

[Link]()

except FileNotFoundError:
print("The file '[Link]' was not found.")

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Boolean operators are often used in conditional statements such as if, while, and
for loops
Boolean operators can be combined with comparison operators
Be careful when using the NOT operator, as it can sometimes lead to unexpected
results
It is always a good idea to test your code with different inputs to ensure that it
works as expected

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 Procedures & Functions
Your notes
What are functions and procedures?

Examiner Tips and Tricks

IGCSE 0478 Paper 2 assesses your ability to define, use, and explain functions,
procedures, and parameters using both pseudocode and Python. This page shows
only examinable structures, phrasing, and examples—no fluff.

Functions and procedures are a type of sub program, a sequence of instructions that
perform a specific task or set of tasks
Procedures and functions are defined at the start of the code
Sub programs are often used to simplify a program by breaking it into smaller, more
manageable parts
Sub programs can be used to:
Avoid duplicating code and can be reused throughout a program
Improve the readability and maintainability of code
Perform calculations, to retrieve data, or to make decisions based on input
Parameters are values that are passed into a sub program
Parameters can be variables or values and they are located in brackets after the
name of the sub program
Example: FUNCTION TaxCalculator(pay,taxcode) OR PROCEDURE TaxCalculator(pay,taxcode)
Sub programs can have multiple parameters
To use a sub program you 'call' it from the main program

What's the difference between a function and

procedure?
A Function returns a value whereas a procedure does not

Procedures
Procedures are defined using the PROCEDURE keyword in pseudocode or def keyword
in Python
A procedure can be written as:

PROCEDURE <identifier>

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 <statements>
ENDPROCEDURE
Or if parameters are being used: Your notes

PROCEDURE <identifier>(<param1>:<data type>, <param2>:<data type>...)

<statements>
ENDPROCEDURE
Creating a procedure

Pseudocode

PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width
OUTPUT "The area is ",area
END PROCEDURE

Python

def ageCheck(age):
if age > 18:
print("You are old enough")
else:
print("You are too young")

To call a procedure, it can be written as:

CALL <identifier>
CALL <identifier>(Value1,Value2...)

Calling a procedure

Pseudocode

CALL Calculate_area
CALL Calculate_area(5,3)

Python

ageCheck(21)
print(ageCheck(21))

Examples
A Python program using procedures to display a menu and navigate between them
Procedures are defined at the start of the program and the main program calls the first
procedure to start

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 In this example, no parameters are needed
Procedures
Your notes
# Procedure definition for the main menu
def main_menu():
# Outputs the options
print("1. Addition")
print("2. Subtraction")
print("3. Multiplication")
print("4. Division")
print("5. Exit")

# Asks the user to enter their choice

choice = int(input("Enter your choice: "))
if choice == 1:
addition()
elif choice == 2:
subtraction()
elif choice == 3:
multiplication()
elif choice == 4:
division()
elif choice == 5:
exit_program()

# Procedure definition for addition

def addition():
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
print("Result:", num1 + num2)

# Procedure definition for subtraction

def subtraction():
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
print("Result:", num1 - num2)

# Procedure definition for multiplication

def multiplication():
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
print("Result:", num1 * num2)

# Procedure definition for division

def division():
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
if num2 != 0:
print("Result:", num1 / num2)
else:
print("Error: Division by zero is not allowed.")

# Procedure to exit the program

def exit_program():
print("Exiting the program. Goodbye!")
exit()

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# Main program
while True: # Loop to continuously show the menu until the user chooses to exit
main_menu() Your notes

Functions
Functions are defined using the FUNCTION keyword in pseudocode or def keyword in
Python
Functions always return a value so they do not use the CALL function, instead they are
called within an expression
A function can be written as:

FUNCTION <identifier> RETURNS <data type>

<statements>
ENDFUNCTION
Or if parameters are being used:

FUNCTION <identifier>(<param1>:<data type>, <param2>:<data type>...) RETURNS

<data type>
<statements>
ENDFUNCTION

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In pseudocode, never write CALL calculate_area() for a function.
Functions are called in expressions like:
OUTPUT calculate_area(5,3)
Use CALL only with procedures that do not return a value.

Creating and using a function

Pseudocode

FUNCTION calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width
RETURN area
ENDFUNCTION

# Output the value returned from the function

OUTPUT(calculate_area(5,3))

Python

def squared(number):
squared = number^2

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 return squared

# Output the value returned from the function Your notes

print(squared(4))

Examples
A Python program using a function to calculate area and return the result
Two options for main program are shown, one which outputs the result (# 1) and one
which stores the result so that it can be used at a later time (# 2)

Functions

# Function definition, length and width are parameters

def area(length, width):
area = length * width # Calculate area
return area # Return area

# Main program #1
length = int(input("Enter the length: "))
width = int(input("Enter the width: "))
print(area(length, width)) # Calls the area function and prints the result

# Main program #2
length = int(input("Enter the length: ")) # Input for length
width = int(input("Enter the width: ")) # Input for width
calculated_area = area(length, width) # Stores the result of the function in a variable
print("The area is " + str(calculated_area) + " cm^2") # Outputs the result with a message

Worked Example
An economy-class airline ticket costs £199. A first-class airline ticket costs £595.
(A) Create a function, flightCost(), that takes the number of passengers and the type of
ticket as parameters, calculates and returns the price to pay.
You do not have to validate these parameters
You must use :
a high-level programming language that you have studied [4]
(B) Write program code, that uses flightCost(), to output the price of 3 passengers flying
economy.
You must use :
a high-level programming language that you have studied [3]
How do I answer this question?
(A)

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 Define the function, what parameters are needed? where do they go?
How do you calculate the price?
Return the result Your notes
(B)
How do you call a function?
What parameters does the function need to return the result?
Answers

Part Python

A def flightCost(passengers, type):

if type == "economy":
cost = 199 * passengers
elif type == "first":
cost = 595 * passengers
return cost

B print(flightCost("economy", 3)

OR
x = flightCost("economy", 3)

print(x)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

in pseudocode, you can get marks just for using the correct structure:
Starts with FUNCTION or PROCEDURE [1 mark]
Correct use of parameters and RETURN (functions) or OUTPUT (procedures) [1
mark]
Called correctly from main program [1 mark]

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 Local & Global Variables
Your notes
Local Variables
What is a local variable?
A local variable is a variable declared within a specific scope, such as a function or a
code block
Local variables are accessible only within the block in which they are defined, and their
lifetime is limited to that particular block
Once the execution of the block ends, the local variable is destroyed, and its memory is
released

Python example
In this python code, you can see that the localVariable (with the value 10) is
declared inside of the function printValue
This means that only this function can access and change the value in the local variable
It cannot be accessed by other modules in the program

Local variables

def printValue():
localVariable = 10 # Defines a local variable inside the function
print("The value of the local variable is:", localVariable)

printValue() # Call the function

Global Variables
What is a global variable?
A global variable is a variable declared at the outermost level of a program.
They are declared outside any modules such as functions or procedures
Global variables have a global scope, which means they can be accessed and modified
from any part of the program

Python example
In this python code, you can see that the globalVariable (with the value 10) is
declared outside of the function printValue
This means that this function and any other modules can access and change the value in
the global variable

Global variables

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globalVariable = 10 # Defines a global variable

def printValue(): Your notes

global globalVariable
print("The value into the variable is:", globalVariable)

printValue() # Call the function

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 Library Routines
Your notes
Library Routines
What are library routines?
A library routine is reusable code that can be used throughout a program
The code has been made public through reusable modules or functions
Using library routines saves programmers time by using working code that has already
been tested
Some examples of pre-existing libraries are:
Random
Round

Random
The random library is a library of code which allows users to make use of 'random' in their
programs
Examples of random that are most common are:
Random choices
Random numbers
Random number generation is a programming concept that involves a computer
generating a random number to be used within a program to add an element of
unpredictability
Examples of where this concept could be used include:
Simulating the roll of a dice
Selecting a random question (from a numbered list)
National lottery
Cryptography

Concept Pseudocode Python

Random numbers RANDOM(1,6) import random

number = [Link](1,10)

number = [Link](-1.0,10.0)

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Random choice import random

choice = [Link]() Your notes

Examples in Python
Random code

# importing random library

import random

# asking user to enter a username and password

user = input("Enter a username: ")
pw = input("Enter a password: ")

# checking if the user and password are correct

if user == "admin" and pw == "1234":
# generating a random 4-digit code
code = [Link](1000, 9999)

# printing the code

print("Your code is", code)
else:
print("Invalid username or password.")

National lottery

import random

# Create a list of numbers for the national lottery

lottery_numbers = list(range(1, 50))

# Create an empty list to store the chosen numbers

chosen_numbers = []

# Loop to pick 6 numbers from the list

for _ in range(6):
# Use [Link] to pick a number from the list
number = [Link](lottery_numbers)

# Add the chosen number to the list of chosen numbers

chosen_numbers.append(number)

# Remove the chosen number from the list of available numbers

lottery_numbers.remove(number)

# Sort the chosen numbers in ascending order

chosen_numbers.sort()

# Output the chosen numbers

print("The winning numbers are:", chosen_numbers)

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Round
The round library is a library of code which allows users to round numerical values to a Your notes
set amount of decimal places
An example of rounding is using REAL values and rounding to 2 decimal places
The round library can be written as:

ROUND(<identifier>, <places>)

Concept Pseudocode Python

Round Cost ← 1.9556 number = 3.14159 rounded_number = round(number, 2)

OUTPUT ROUND(Cost,2) print(rounded_number)
# Outputs 1.95 # Outputs 3.14

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 Maintaining Programs
Your notes
Maintaining Programs
How do you write programs that are easy to maintain?
Easy to maintain programs are written using techniques that make code easy to read
Programmers should be consistent with the use of techniques such as:
Layout - spacing between sections
Indentation - clearly defined sections of code
Comments - explaining key parts of the code
Meaningful variable names - describe what is being stored
White space - adding suitable spaces to make it easy to read
Sub-programs - Functions or procedures used where possible
When consistency is applied, programs are easy to maintain

Example easy to-maintain program

Python code

Calculates the area of a triangle given its base and height

Inputs:
base (float): The length of the triangle's base (positive value)
height (float): The height of the triangle from the base (positive value)
Returns:
The calculated area of the triangle (float)
Raises:
ValueError: If either base or height is non-positive

def calculate_area_of_triangle(base, height):

if base <= 0 or height <= 0:
raise ValueError("Base and height must be positive values.")

area = 0.5 * base * height # Corrected multiplication syntax

return area

def main():
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Prompts the user for triangle base and height, calculates and prints the area
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
try:

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 base = float(input("Enter the base of the triangle: "))
height = float(input("Enter the height of the triangle: "))
Your notes
# Call the area calculation function
area = calculate_area_of_triangle(base, height)

print(f"The area of the triangle is approximately {area:.2f} square units.")

except ValueError as error:

print(f"Error: {error}")

# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------

main()

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