RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®

Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

Accredited by NBA, New Delhi

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BENGALURU-560059

Question and Answer Report

AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL
CV255TBE

Group members
SL NAME USN
NO
1 CHINMAYA R 1RV22CV019

2 HARSHA DEV K 1RV22CV036

3 MADHUSUDHAN S V 1RV22CV051

4 SWEEKRUTH K H 1RV22CV111
 UNIT-II
1. Explain the composition and different layers of atmosphere with neat sketch?

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding the Earth, protecting life by blocking
harmful radiation, regulating temperature, and enabling weather patterns. It is divided into
distinct layers based on temperature variations.

Composition of Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of:

 Nitrogen (N₂) – 78%

 Oxygen (O₂) – 21%
 Argon (Ar) – 0.93%
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – 0.04%
 Trace gases & water vapor – Varying amounts

Layers of the Atmosphere

1. Troposphere (0-12 km)

o Lowest layer, where weather phenomena occur.
o Temperature decreases with altitude (-6.5°C per km).
o Contains about 75% of the atmosphere’s mass.
2. Stratosphere (12-50 km)
o Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation.
o Temperature increases with altitude due to ozone absorption of solar radiation.
o Ideal for aircraft travel due to stable conditions.
3. Mesosphere (50-80 km)
o Coldest layer (-90°C at the top).
o Meteors burn up in this layer due to atmospheric friction.
4. Thermosphere (80-700 km)
o Contains the ionosphere, which aids radio communication.
o Temperature rises significantly due to solar radiation absorption.
o Auroras occur in this layer.
5. Exosphere (700 km & above)
o Outermost layer, gradually merging into space.
o Contains sparse particles, mostly hydrogen and helium.
2. List and explain the meteorological factors influencing air pollution

Meteorological Factors Influencing Air Pollution

Meteorological conditions play a crucial role in determining the dispersion, concentration,

and movement of air pollutants. The key factors influencing air pollution include:

1. Wind Speed and Direction

o Strong winds help disperse pollutants, reducing their concentration in one
area.
o Low wind speeds or stagnant air conditions cause pollutants to accumulate,
leading to higher pollution levels.
o Wind direction determines the transport of pollutants from one location to
another.
2. Temperature and Temperature Inversion
o High temperatures can enhance chemical reactions, forming secondary
pollutants like ozone (O₃).
o Temperature inversion (when warm air traps cooler air below) prevents
vertical mixing, trapping pollutants near the surface and causing smog.
 3. Humidity and Precipitation
o High humidity can increase the formation of aerosols, worsening haze
conditions.
o Rain helps wash away airborne pollutants, improving air quality (wet
deposition).
o Lack of rainfall leads to dust accumulation and worsening pollution levels.
4. Atmospheric Stability
o Stable atmosphere: Limits vertical air movement, trapping pollutants near the
ground.
o Unstable atmosphere: Enhances vertical mixing, dispersing pollutants.
5. Topography
o Valleys and basins trap pollutants due to limited air movement, increasing
pollution levels (e.g., Delhi and Los Angeles).
o Coastal areas experience land-sea breezes that can carry pollutants inland or
out to sea.
6. Solar Radiation
o Increases photochemical reactions, forming pollutants like ground-level ozone
and secondary particulate matter.
o Strong sunlight enhances smog formation, especially in urban areas.
7. Seasonal Variations
o Winter: Higher pollution due to temperature inversion and increased heating
emissions.
o Summer: Higher ozone levels due to increased sunlight.
o Monsoon: Better air quality due to rain and strong winds.

3. Explain measurement of wind direction, speed and its influence on air

pollution dispersion

Measurement of Wind Direction, Speed, and Its Influence on Air Pollution

Dispersion

Wind plays a significant role in the dispersion, transport, and dilution of air pollutants.
Understanding wind speed and direction helps in air quality assessment and pollution control.

Measurement of Wind Direction

Wind direction refers to the direction from which the wind originates. It is measured using:

a) Wind Vane

 A wind vane (or weather vane) consists of an arrow or pointer that aligns with the
wind direction.
 The tail of the vane aligns with the wind, and the direction is read from a compass
rose (e.g., North, South, East, West).
b) Anemometer with Wind Sensors

 Modern weather stations use electronic wind sensors that measure wind direction
using ultrasonic or mechanical methods.
 Data is recorded digitally for meteorological studies.

Measurement of Wind Speed

Wind speed is measured in meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h). Common
instruments include:

a) Cup Anemometer

 Has three or four cups mounted on a rotating arm.

 The wind causes rotation, and the speed is proportional to the rotation rate.

b) Hot Wire Anemometer

 Uses a thin heated wire.

 The cooling effect of the wind changes electrical resistance, which is converted into
wind speed readings.

c) Ultrasonic Anemometer

 Uses sound waves to measure wind speed.

 More accurate and commonly used in meteorological research.

Influence of Wind on Air Pollution Dispersion

a) Wind Speed Effect

 High wind speeds disperse pollutants over a larger area, reducing their concentration.
 Low wind speeds cause pollutants to accumulate, increasing pollution levels.

b) Wind Direction Effect

 Determines where pollutants will be transported.

 Upwind areas remain clean, while downwind areas receive pollutants.
 Industrial zones and cities analyze wind direction for planning emission control
strategies.

c) Turbulence and Mixing

 Turbulent winds enhance vertical and horizontal mixing, dispersing pollutants.

 Stable wind conditions restrict pollutant movement, leading to localized pollution
buildup.

d) Urban and Topographical Effects

  In valleys and basins, weak winds trap pollutants, leading to smog formation.
 In coastal areas, sea breezes and land breezes influence pollution transport.

4. Explain temperature inversion, lapse rate and atmospheric stability?

Temperature Inversion, Lapse Rate, and Atmospheric Stability

 Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion occurs when a layer of warm air traps cooler air below it,
preventing vertical mixing of air pollutants. This leads to the accumulation of pollutants
near the ground, worsening air quality.

Types of Temperature Inversion:

1. Radiation Inversion:
o Occurs during clear nights when the ground cools rapidly.
o Cooler air remains trapped below warmer air.
2. Subsidence Inversion:
o Happens when high-pressure systems compress air downward, warming the
upper layers while trapping cooler air below.
3. Advection Inversion:
o Occurs when warm air moves over a cooler surface, causing the lower air
layer to cool.

Effects on Air Pollution:

 Traps pollutants like smoke and smog near the surface.

 Causes severe air pollution episodes, especially in cities (e.g., Delhi, Beijing, Los
Angeles).

 Lapse Rate
The lapse rate is the rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. It
influences atmospheric stability and pollutant dispersion.

Types of Lapse Rates:

1. Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR):

o The actual rate of temperature decrease with height in the atmosphere (varies
daily).
2. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):
o The rate at which dry air cools when rising, about 10°C per km.
3. Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR):
o The rate at which moist air cools when rising, about 5-7°C per km (due to
condensation releasing latent heat).

 Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric stability determines whether air will rise, fall, or remain at its current level.
It affects how pollutants disperse in the air.
Types of Atmospheric Stability:

1. Stable Atmosphere
o Temperature inversion leads to poor vertical mixing.
o Pollutants remain trapped near the surface, causing high pollution levels.
2. Unstable Atmosphere
o When air is warmer than its surroundings, it rises, enhancing vertical mixing.
o Pollutants disperse quickly, improving air quality.
3. Neutral Atmosphere
o The air neither rises nor sinks significantly.
o Pollutants disperse moderately.

Conclusion:

 Temperature inversion worsens pollution by trapping it.

 Lapse rate determines how quickly air cools with altitude.
 Atmospheric stability controls pollutant dispersion.

5. Write short note on mixing height, precipitation, humidity, solar

radiation and their effects on air pollution dispersion

 Mixing Height
 The mixing height is the vertical distance from the ground to the level where air
pollutants can mix and disperse.
 A higher mixing height allows better dispersion of pollutants, reducing ground-level
concentrations.
 A lower mixing height (common during winter mornings) traps pollutants close to the
surface, worsening air quality.
 Precipitation
 Rain and snow help remove airborne pollutants through wet deposition (washing away
particulate matter and gases like SO₂ and NO₂).
 Heavy rainfall improves air quality significantly, while low or no rainfall leads to dust
accumulation and smog formation.
 Humidity
 High humidity levels increase haze formation and promote secondary pollutant
formation, such as sulfate and nitrate aerosols.
 It also affects particulate matter (PM) by making fine particles absorb water, increasing
their size and reducing visibility.
 Solar Radiation
 Sunlight plays a crucial role in photochemical reactions, leading to the formation of
ground-level ozone (O₃) and smog.
 High solar radiation increases temperature, enhancing pollutant dispersion but also
worsening photochemical air pollution in urban areas.
Effects on Air Pollution Dispersion

 High mixing height & strong winds → Better dispersion, lower pollution.
 Low mixing height, weak winds & high humidity → Pollutants trapped, increased
smog.
 Precipitation → Cleanses the air by removing pollutants.
 Solar radiation → Increases ozone and secondary pollutants.

6. With neat sketch explain the following instrument on the measurement

of meteorological variables
i. Wind direction recorder
ii. Wind speed recorder
iii. Temperature measurement
iv. Solar radiation measurement

i. Wind Direction Recorder

Instrument: Wind Vane

Description: A wind vane, also known as a weather vane, is a device that indicates the
direction from which the wind is blowing. It typically consists of an arrow or pointer that
rotates freely on a vertical rod. The design ensures that the larger surface area catches the
wind, causing the pointer to align with the wind direction.

ii. Wind Speed Recorder

Instrument: Anemometer

Description: An anemometer measures wind speed. A common type is the cup anemometer,
which has three or four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms attached to a vertical
shaft. As the wind blows, it causes the cups to rotate, and the rotational speed is proportional
to the wind speed.
iii. Temperature Measurement

Instrument: Thermometer

Description: Thermometers measure air temperature. Traditional mercury or alcohol

thermometers consist of a liquid-filled glass tube that expands or contracts with temperature
changes. Modern digital thermometers use electronic sensors to provide precise temperature
readings.

iv. Solar Radiation Measurement

Instrument: Pyranometer

Description: A pyranometer measures solar radiation received from a hemispherical field of

view. It typically consists of a thermopile sensor beneath a glass dome that captures both
direct sunlight and diffuse sky radiation, providing data on total solar irradiance.
7. With neat sketch and graph, explain plume behaviour in different
environmental condition.
The behaviour of the plume is entirely dependent on localised air stability. In other words
when the atmosphere is stable, it resists vertical movement, causing the plume to spread
horizontally rather than rise. This can lead to higher concentrations of pollutants near the
ground, worsening air quality. Conversely, in unstable atmospheric conditions, the plume can
rise more freely and disperse over a larger area, reducing pollutant concentrations at ground
level.
Effluents from tall stacks are inserted several hundred meters above the ground because of
the cumulative effects of buoyancy and velocity on plume rise.
Other factors that influence plume rise are the diurnal variations in the atmospheric stability
and the long-term variation which occur with changing weather
The six types of plume behaviour shown in the figure tells us that the spread of plume is
directly related to the vertical temperature gradient that is shown in the figure.
[Link]: It has wavy nature and occurs at highly unstable environment because of the rapid
mixing. Due to the high degree of turbulence, the plume is dispersed rapidly but there are
chances of high concentration of plume, close to the stack, if plume touches the ground.
[Link]: As the name suggests, it is shaped like a cone and takes place in a neutral
atmosphere (adiabatic condition) at a wind velocity of 32km/h. However, the plume reaches
the ground after a greater distance.
[Link]:This is a result of extreme inversion condition where in the plume gets spread
horizontally but very little in the vertical direction. Therefore, the prediction of ground level
becomes difficult.
[Link]: Lofting occurs when there is strong lapse rate above a surface inversion. Under
such a condition, the diffusion is rapid in the upward layer but downward diffusion does not
penetrate the inversion layer. In these conditions, emission will not reach the surface.
[Link]:It is a phenomenon where in the pollutants are brought closer to surface rapidly
when the air destabilizes.
[Link]: Here, the plume is caught in between the inversions and can only diffuse within
limited vertical height.

8. With neat sketch explain the significance, construction and type of wind
rows.
A wind rose is a graphical tool used to represent the distribution of wind speed and direction
at a specific location over a defined period. It provides a concise visual summary of wind
patterns, which is essential for various applications, including meteorology, environmental
studies, and urban planning.

Significance of Wind Roses

 Meteorology: Wind roses help meteorologists understand prevailing wind patterns,

which are crucial for weather forecasting and climate studies.
  Environmental Studies: They assist in analyzing pollutant dispersion, as wind
direction and speed influence how pollutants spread in the atmosphere.
 Urban Planning and Architecture: Designers use wind roses to optimize building
orientation and natural ventilation, enhancing energy efficiency and indoor comfort.
 Aviation: In airport engineering, wind roses are used to determine optimal runway
orientations to align with prevailing winds, ensuring safer takeoffs and landings.

Construction of a Wind Rose

1. Data Collection: Gather wind speed and direction data from a reliable source, such as
a weather station.
2. Data Segmentation: Divide the data into segments based on wind direction, typically
using the 16 cardinal directions (N, NNE, NE, etc.).
3. Frequency Calculation: Calculate the frequency of winds blowing from each
direction.
4. Speed Categorization: Classify wind speeds into ranges (e.g., 0-5 mph, 5-10 mph)
for each direction.
5. Diagram Plotting: Create a circular plot with spokes representing wind directions.
The length of each spoke indicates the frequency of winds from that direction, and
different colors or line thicknesses can represent various wind speed ranges.

Types of Wind Roses

1. Type I: This type displays only the direction and duration of winds. It consists of
radial lines indicating wind direction, with the length of each line representing the
frequency or duration of winds from that direction.
2. Type II: This type provides a more detailed analysis by incorporating wind speed
along with direction and duration. The diagram includes radial lines for wind
direction, with segments along each line representing different wind speed ranges.
The length of each segment corresponds to the frequency of winds at a particular
speed from that direction.
9. Write a note on ambient air quality standards and significance of each
air quality parameter

Ambient Air Quality Standards and Significance of Air Quality Parameters

1. What are Ambient Air Quality Standards?

Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS) are regulatory limits set by environmental agencies
to control air pollution and protect human health, ecosystems, and the environment. These
standards define permissible concentrations of various air pollutants over a specific period.

2. Ambient Air Quality Standards in India

In India, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are set by the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981. These standards define safe limits for major air pollutants to minimize health risks.

Industrial, Residential,
Time-Weighted Ecologically Sensitive
Pollutant Rural & Other Areas
Average Areas (µg/m³)
(µg/m³)
PM₁₀ (Particulate
24 hours 100 100
Matter <10µm)
PM₂.₅ (Particulate
24 hours 60 60
Matter <2.5µm)
SO₂ (Sulfur
24 hours 80 80
Dioxide)
NO₂ (Nitrogen
24 hours 80 80
Dioxide)
CO (Carbon
8 hours 2 mg/m³ 2 mg/m³
Monoxide)
O₃ (Ozone) 8 hours 100 100
Pb (Lead) Annual 0.5 0.5
NH₃ (Ammonia) 24 hours 400 400
Benzene Annual 5 5
Arsenic Annual 6 ng/m³ 6 ng/m³
Nickel Annual 20 ng/m³ 20 ng/m³

3. Significance of Each Air Quality Parameter

a) Particulate Matter (PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅)

 Significance: Tiny particles that can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing respiratory
diseases, heart problems, and lung cancer.
 Sources: Dust, vehicle emissions, construction activities, industrial processes.
 Health Impact: Long-term exposure leads to asthma, bronchitis, and reduced lung
function.
b) Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

 Significance: A major air pollutant contributing to acid rain and respiratory issues.
 Sources: Fossil fuel combustion (coal, oil), industrial emissions.
 Health Impact: Causes lung irritation, breathing problems, and worsens asthma.

c) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)

 Significance: A key contributor to smog and acid rain.

 Sources: Vehicle emissions, power plants, industrial combustion.
 Health Impact: Irritates airways, increases susceptibility to respiratory infections.

d) Carbon Monoxide (CO)

 Significance: A colorless, odorless gas that can be deadly at high concentrations.

 Sources: Incomplete combustion of fuels (vehicles, generators, industrial processes).
 Health Impact: Reduces oxygen transport in the blood, leading to headaches,
dizziness, and in severe cases, death.

e) Ozone (O₃)

 Significance: A secondary pollutant formed from NOx and VOCs under sunlight,
causing smog.
 Sources: Vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
 Health Impact: Causes lung inflammation, worsens asthma, and reduces lung
function.

f) Lead (Pb)

 Significance: A toxic metal that can accumulate in the body, causing severe health
issues.
 Sources: Industrial processes, battery manufacturing, lead-based fuels (though phased
out in many countries).
 Health Impact: Affects the nervous system, especially in children, leading to
learning disabilities and brain damage.

g) Ammonia (NH₃)

 Significance: A reactive gas that can form fine particulate matter when combined
with other pollutants.
 Sources: Agricultural activities (fertilizers, livestock waste), industrial emissions.
 Health Impact: Causes eye and lung irritation, contributes to PM formation.

h) Benzene (C₆H₆)

 Significance: A volatile organic compound (VOC) that is a known carcinogen.

 Sources: Vehicle emissions, industrial processes, tobacco smoke.
 Health Impact: Long-term exposure can lead to leukemia and other blood disorders.

i) Arsenic (As)
  Significance: A toxic metal found in industrial emissions, mining, and smelting.
 Sources: Coal combustion, industrial processes.
 Health Impact: Causes skin diseases, lung cancer, and neurological disorders.

j) Nickel (Ni)

 Significance: A heavy metal that can cause severe environmental and health
problems.
 Sources: Metal refining, combustion of fossil fuels.
 Health Impact: Linked to lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular
diseases.

4. Conclusion

 Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS) are crucial for monitoring and regulating
air pollution.
 Different pollutants have varying effects on human health, vegetation, water
bodies, and ecosystems.
 Regulatory compliance with NAAQS helps ensure cleaner air and a healthier
environment.