TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

Cover Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Introduction of the Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Lessons

1: Introduction to the Study of Globalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

A. Approaches to the Study of Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

B. Market Globalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2: The Global Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3: Market Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4: The Global Inter-State System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5: Contemporary Global Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6: Global Divides: The North and the South. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7: Asian Regionalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

8: Global Media Cultures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

9: The Globalization of Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

10: The Global City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

11: Global Demography (Mandated Topic). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

12: Global Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

13: Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

14: Global Food Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

15: Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Evaluation of the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

ii | Page
 INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE

Course Code: CWORLD1

Course Title: The Contemporary World

Credit: Three (3) Units

Course Description:

This course introduces students to the contemporary world by examining the

multifaceted phenomenon of globalization. Using the various disciplines of the social
sciences, it examines the economic, social, political, technological, and other
transformations that have created an increasing awareness of the interconnectedness
of peoples and places around the globe. To this end, the course provides an overview
of the various debates in global governance, development, and sustainability. Beyond
exposing the student to the world outside the Philippines, it seeks to inculcate a sense of
global citizenship and global ethical responsibility.

Requirements of the Course:

1. Three (3) Major Examinations

2. Regular Attendance
3. Scheduled Quizzes, Seat-works, Home-works/ Assignments, Classroom-Based
Recitations
4. Critique Papers, Synthesis Papers, Essay Writing
5. Group Power-Point Presentations, Video Presentations
6. Research Paper Writing

Learning Competencies:

At the end of the course the students are expected to:

1. be proficient and effective in communication skills through writing, speaking,

listening, reading, viewing, and the use of new platforms of technology;

2. apply critical, analytical, and creative thinking skills (i.e., quantitative, qualitative,
artistic, scientific, textual, visual, experimental, and observational) in tackling local,
national, and global problems methodically;

3. exhibit personal and civic responsibilities as a global citizen in viewing the

contemporary world from both the Philippine and global perspectives;

4. demonstrate the ability to reflect on moral norms or ethical standards as they affect
individuals and the global society;

5. exhibit understanding and respect for human rights as they contribute personally and
meaningfully to the country’s development;

6. possess and display practical skills through working effectively in a group;

7. demonstrate application of computing and information technology skills to assist and

facilitate research-related activities; and

8. display practical problem-solving skills in addressing real-world problems.

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1 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To differentiate the competing approaches to the study of

globalization
2. To understand the varying processes of globalization
3. To explain the different ideological dimensions of
globalization
4. To appreciate the core claims of market globalism
5. To agree on a working definition of globalization for the
course

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF
GLOBALIZATION

The first part of this lesson discusses the summary of the “Approaches to the Study
of Globalization” as presented by Manfred B. Steger (2014) which was adopted from
the “SAGE Handbook of Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger, Paul Battersby,
and Joseph M. Siracusa (2014). The succeeding discussion presents the work of Manfred
B. Steger (2014) entitled “Market Globalism” which was also adopted from the “SAGE
Handbook of Globalization”.

A. Approaches to the Study of Globalization

There are many different approaches to the study of globalization. The purpose of
this chapter is to provide a general overview of the various approaches to the concept
as espoused by several scholars since the 1990s.
Various scholars have advanced the concept of globalization by analyzing the
changing economic, political, and cultural processes that happened since the 1970s.
Some of the accepted definitions of globalization include the following: “increasing
global inter-connectedness”; “the expansion and intensification of social relations
across world-time and world-space”; “the compression of time and space”; “distant
proximities”; “a complex range of processes, driven by a mixture of political and
economic influences”; and “the swift and relatively unimpeded flow of capital, people,
and ideas across national borders” (Giddens, 1990; Harvey, 1989; Held & McGrew, 2007;
Lechner & Boli, 2011; Robertson, 1992; Steger, 2013; Waters, 2001).
Globalization as “Globaloney”.

Three groups of scholars argue that the existing accounts of globalization are
incorrect and imprecise. Their arguments fall into three differing categories. The first
group disagrees with the usefulness of globalization as a precise analytical concept.
The second group contends that the world is not really integrated as many proponents
believe. The last cluster disputes the novelty of the process while acknowledging the
presence of moderate globalizing tendencies.

Rejectionists. These scholars believe that the term “globalization” is an example of

a vague word employed in academic discourses. Just like the term “nationalism”,
“globalization” is a complex and ambiguous phenomenon, thus both are hard
concepts to define (Calhoun, 1993).

Sceptics. This group stresses the limited nature of current globalizing processes.
According to Hirst and Thompson (2009), our international economy is not really a
global phenomenon, since it only centered on Europe, Eastern Asia, and North
America. They also emphasized that most of the economic activities are still national in
terms of origin and scope.

Modifiers. They entail that “globalization” has often been applied in a historically
inaccurate manner. Gilpin (2000) argues that our international economy in the late
1990s was even less incorporated before the outbreak of World War I. According to the
neo-Marxist proponents of World-System Theory (Wallerstein, 1979; Frank, 1998), the
modern capitalist economy today has been global five centuries ago. Thus
globalization can be drawn back to the political and cultural relations that developed
the ancient empires of Persia (Iran), China, and Rome.

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Globalization as an Economic Process

The evolution of global markets and international corporations led to global

economic interdependence among nation-states. The development of international
economic institutions such as the European Union, the North American Free Trade
Association, and other regional trading blocs are some of the examples (Keohane &
Nye, 2000). This only shows that economic globalization increases the linkage of
national economies through trade, financial flows, and foreign direct investment (FDI)
by multinational or trans-national corporations (MNCs/TNCs) (Gilpin, 2000).

The emergence and evolution of the post-World War I global economy was
attributed to the establishment of the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference (Schaeffer,
2005). Its operation for almost thirty years contributed to the formation of the “golden
age of controlled capitalism” (Luttwak, 1999).
The collapse of the Bretton Woods System in the early 1970s was followed by the
intensification of neo-liberalist ideas in the 1980s coupled with the collapse from 1989 to
1991 of the command-type economies in Eastern Europe. Aside from the issue on free
trade, the advent of a transnational financial system made possible the deregulation of
interest rates, the removal of credit controls, and the privatization of government-
owned banks and other financial institutions.

Globalization as a Political Process

Political globalization includes the discussion and analysis of political processes
and institutions. Thus two questions are asked: (1) what are the political grounds for the
immense flows of capital, money, and technology across territorial boundaries?; (2) do
these flows create a serious test to the power of the nation-state? These dilemmas imply
that economic globalization might lead to the reduced control of national
governments over restrictive policies and economic regulations.

According to Ohmae (1990, 1995, 2005), the rise of a “borderless world” was the
consequence of the irresistible forces of capitalism. Thus, the nation-state has already
lost its function as a significant entity in the global economy vis-à-vis the decline of
territory as a meaningful framework for understanding political and social change.
Regional economies will be linked together and operate based on free-market
principles.
In terms of global governance, political globalization might enable the
emergence of democratic ideals promoting a “global civil society” that promote
human rights in the international level (Brysk, 2002).

Globalization as a Cultural Process

Two focal questions are raised by scholars of cultural globalization. First, does
globalization intensify cultural homogeneity, or does it lead to more diversity and
heterogeneity? Second, what could be the impact of the culture of consumerism on
our natural environment?
According to Tomlinson (1999), cultural globalization signifies a growing linkage of
intricate cultural interconnections and interdependencies that define our modern
social life. These can be made possible through the emergence of powerful global
media corporations that develop new communication technologies which promote
the Anglo-American value system. This global dissemination of American values
(Americanization), consumer goods, and lifestyles promote the objectives of American
“cultural imperialism” which is also termed by Ritzer (1993) as “McDonaldization” which
describes the ideals of the fast-food business that dominate the American society and
the rest of the globe.
According to Barber (1996), a type of cultural imperialism that was assembled in
the 1950s and 1960s promoted an American culture of popular consumerism which he
termed as “McWorld”. This was driven by expansionist commercial interests which was
evident in its choice of music, video, theater, books, and theme parks which create

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exports that center around common logos, advertising slogans, stars, songs, brand
names, jingles, trademarks, and the like.

As argued by Robertson (1995) global cultural flows also take place in local
contexts which result to “glocalization”. This refers to an intricate collaboration of the
global and local cultures characterized by cultural borrowing. These interactions lead
to a complex mixture of both cultures often referred to as “hybridization” or
“creolization” which signifies processes of cultural mixing that are replicated in music,
film, fashion, language, and other types of social expression.
Appadurai (1996) classifies five dimensions or “landscapes” that are instituted by
global cultural flows: (a) ethnoscapes (shifting populations due to influx of tourists,
immigrants, refugees, and exiles); (b) technoscapes (improvement of technologies that
assists the rise of MNCs); (c) finanscapes (movement of all forms of global capital); (d)
mediascapes (electronic know-hows that produce and spread information), and (e)
ideoscapes (principles advanced by states and social movements).

Sad to say, there are ecological dilemmas that are connected with this
consumerist culture that promote an infinite accumulation of material possessions.
These include and are not limited to the following: (a) human-induced global climate
change; and (b) worldwide destruction of biodiversity. Data suggest that further
increase in global temperature could lead to a partial melt-down of the polar ice caps,
causing global sea levels to rise up to three feet by 2100 which could threaten many
coastal regions of the world. By the end of this century, there would be a great
possibility that 50 per cent of all plant and animal species (most of them in the global
south) might disappear (Broswimmer, 2002).

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 Activity 1.A.i
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. They reject the idea that globalization is a recent A. Ethnoscapes

Phenomenon
___2. Its establishment contributed to the formation of the B. Regional Training
“golden age of controlled capitalism” Blocs
___3. This refers to an intricate collaboration of the global C. Sceptics
and local cultures characterized by cultural borrowing
___4. This refers to the improvement of technologies that D. Mediascapes
assists the rise of MNCs
___5. The swift and relatively unimpeded flow of capital, E. Rejectionists
people, and ideas across national borders
___6. This denotes electronic know-hows that produce and F. Political
spread information Globalization
___7. It refers to principles advanced by states and social G. Globalization
Movements
___8. They believe that globalization is an example of a H. Finanscapes
vague word employed in academic discourses
___9. This type of globalization enables the emergence of I. The 1944 Bretton
democratic ideals promoting a “global civil society” Woods Conference
___10. This type of globalization refers to the evolution of J. Ideoscapes
global markets and international corporations
___11. This denotes movement of all forms of global K. Cultural
Capital Globalization
___12. They argue that international economy is not really L. Glocalization
a global phenomenon
___13. This refers to shifting populations due to influx of M. Modifiers
tourists, immigrants, refugees, and exiles
___14. This type of globalization promotes the N. Technoscapes
dissemination of Anglo-American values system
___15. The European Union (EU), the North American Free O. Economic
Trade Association (NAFTA), ASEAN, etc. Globalization

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 Activity [Link]
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question:

In not more than (five) 5 sentences, explain/justify how the prevailing values and
beliefs of consumerism are interconnected with the most threatening ecological
problems dealing with human-induced global climate change.

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 B. Market Globalism

The Ideological Dimension of Globalization

During the early 1990s, the emphasis of globalization was dominated by the
economic and technological features of globalization. Later, the role of incorporating
markets and new information know-hows became part of understanding the process of
globalization. This section incorporates the ideological aspect of globalization and the
roles and purposes of political ideologies. It also integrates ideas on the six central
claims of market globalism.

Political Ideologies and the Global Imaginary

According to Steger (2014), “ideology” is a structure of broadly shared ideas or

philosophies, patterned beliefs, guiding norms, values, and ideals recognized as fact by
some collections of people. Every ideology is organized around core claims which
differentiates it from other contrasting ideologies.
The concept “ideology” was first introduced by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in the
18th century. For this Enlightenment thinker, the term means a positivistic “science of
ideas” using the empirical tools borrowed from the natural sciences. According to Paul
Ricoeur (1986), the first functional level of ideology (Ideology as Distortion) refers to the
construction of contorted descriptions of social truth. This process obscures the
difference between things as they are perceived in theory and things as they are
viewed in reality.
Ricoeur (1986) acknowledged “Ideology as Legitimation” to be the second
functional stage of ideology. There are two central elements to be considered here: (a)
the right to legitimacy claimed by the ruling authority; and (b) the trust in the ruler’s
legitimacy granted by its followers.

The third functional level of ideology according to Ricoeur (1986) is “Ideology as

Integration”. In this case, ideology offers humanity with permanence as it constructs,
conserves, and safeguards the social identity of individuals and collections of people.
This means that this constructive role of ideology provides the symbols, norms, and
images that holds together the identity of individuals and collectivities. Therefore,
ideology here is seen as having a conservative role as it preserves and conserves
peoples’ existing identities.

This section now defines “market globalism” as a hegemonic structure of

philosophies that provides normative assertions about a set of social procedures called
“globalization”.

Political Ideologies and the “Social Imaginary”

According to Charles Taylor (2004), “social imaginaries” are neither theories nor
ideologies, but are implied “background understandings” of a group’s shared customs.
The social imaginary explains how a group of people fit as one and their expectations
of every member within the community.
Each ideology organized its core concepts based on liberty, progress, race, class,
rationality, tradition, community, welfare, security, and others. The ideologies of
liberalism, conservatism, socialism, communism, and Nazism/fascism are all “nationalist”
in character and are promoted by the elites within the group which are evident in their
political goals through the concept of “national imaginary”.
In the middle era of the 1990s, globalization elites advanced their political
agenda with the introduction of a single international free market and the promotion of
a consumerist values system worldwide. They converted this social imaginary into their
own economistic assertions. Thus the ideas on international trade and financial markets;
global flows of goods, services, and all possible forms of capital; multinational
corporations, offshore financial markets, and the like were popularized.

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The Core Claims of Market Globalism

With the downfall of Soviet-style command economy in Eastern Europe, power

elites from the global north (i.e., corporate managers, CEOs of multinational
corporations, corporate lobbyists, high-ranking military officials, remarkable journalists,
public-relations experts, scholars writing to a large public audience, state administrators
and leading politicians) introduced their idea of market globalism. For them, market
globalism means an advocacy that advances the deregulation of markets, trade
liberalization, the privatization of government-owned and controlled corporations, and
the upkeep of the global “War on Terror” spearheaded by US (Steger, 2014).

Claim 1: Globalization is about the Liberalization and Global Integration of Markets

This claim is buttressed in the neo-liberal philosophy of the laissez faire self-
regulating market economy as the foundation for a global market economy.
According to Steger (2014), the focal roles of the free market in order to foster more
societal integration and material advancement are only possible in a democratic
society that values and protects individual rights and freedoms.

This claim argues that the vital assets of market globalism are the liberalization
and integration of worldwide markets and the lessening of government intervention in
the national and global economies. Thus, privatization, free trade, and unconstrained
capital flows are seen as the paramount ways for attaining personal liberty and
material advancement in the world.
Claim 2: Globalization is Inevitable and Irreversible

This claim contends that globalization promotes the expansion of unalterable

market forces motivated by technological improvements that facilitate the
unavoidable worldwide integration of state economies. Nation-states, political parties,
and civil society organizations have no option but to adapt to the inevitable forces of
globalization.

This neo-liberal depiction of globalization is synonymous to a natural force that

forces people to adjust to these market forces if they want to survive and succeed.
These neo-liberal rules are over and above state politics, thus they call for the abolition
of all forms of state control.
Claim 3: Nobody is in Charge of Globalization

This argues that globalization is manifested through a “self-regulating market”.

According to Hormats (1998), what is attractive with globalization is that nobody is in
control of the process. Thus it is not regulated by any individual, any nation-state, or any
organization. In addition, Friedman (1999) contends that the international market is an
Electronic Herd of anonymous stock, bond and money traders and transnational
foreign investors, integrated by global screens and networks.
Claim 4: Globalization Benefits Everyone (... in the Long Run)

The benefits for all relate to material aspects such as “economic growth” and
“prosperity”. These benefits were according to the participating heads of state of the
1996 G-7 Summit in Lyons, France, consisting of the world's seven most influential highly-
developed countries that issued a joint Economic Communique (1996) that exemplified
the implications of this claim.
These affirmative benefits include an unmatched increase in investment and
trade; the incorporation to global trade of the globe's most densely inhabited regions;
more chances for the less developed countries (LDCs) to develop their standards of
living; faster dissemination of information; technological innovation; and the rise of
skilled jobs.

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Claim 5: Globalization Furthers the Spread of Democracy in the World

This claim links the concepts on globalization and market with that of democracy
which provides individuals with economic choices. According to Freeden (1996),
globalists treat freedom, free markets, free trade and democracy as identical
concepts.
As Fukuyama (2000) asserted, there is a clear connection between a nation’s
level of economic progress and successful democracy. The stage of economic
advancement as a consequence of globalization is beneficial to the formation of
multifaceted civil societies with a powerful middle class which facilitates the spread of
democracy.

Claim 6: Globalization Requires a War on Terror

The neo-conservatives who are committed to the American values of freedom,

security, and free markets added this sixth claim of market globalism. According to
Kaplan (2003), you need to possess both military and economic supremacy in order to
spread your ideas worldwide. This claim integrates idea of market globalism with
militaristic and nationalistic ideas linked with the American-headed global “War on
Terror”.

As asserted by Barnett (2004), the globe is divided into three diverse regions:

The Functioning Core or Core. This is categorized by global network connectivity,

financial transactions, liberal media, cooperative security, nations having stable
democratic governments, practice of transparency, increasing standards of living, and
more deaths by suicide than by killings (i.e., North America, most of Europe, Australia,
New Zealand, and a small part of Latin America).

The Non-Integrating Gap or Gap. This refers to regions where globalization is

thinning or if not, absent. These regions are plagued by authoritarian political regimes,
government regulated markets, mass killings, prevalent poverty and diseases, and the
breeding ground of global terrorists (i.e., the Caribbean Rim, almost all of the African
continent, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and much
of Southeast Asia).

Seam States. These states lie along the Gap's bloody borders (i.e., Mexico, Brazil,
South Africa, Morocco, Algeria, Greece, Turkey, Pakistan, Thailand, Malaysia, the
Philippines, and Indonesia).

10 | Page
 Activity 1.B.i
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. A functional stage of ideology which refers to the A. Ideology as

right of the ruling authority and the trust granted by Integration
its followers
___2. It refers to a hegemonic structure of philosophies that B. Democratic
provides normative assertions about a set of social
processes called “globalization”
___3. A free market which fosters societal integration and C. Social Imaginary
material advancement that protects individual rights
and freedoms will only be possible in this type of society
___4. This refers to a group’s shared ideas or philosophies, D. Ideology as
patterned beliefs, guiding norms, values, and ideals Distortion
___5. These regions are plagued by authoritarian political E. Ideology as
regimes, government regulated markets, the Legitimation
breeding ground of global terrorists, etc.
___6. A functional level of ideology that aims to preserve and F. Power Elites
conserve a group’s existing identity
___7. They refer to CEOs of multinational corporations, high- G. Market
ranking military officials, remarkable journalists, state Globalism
administrators, and leading politicians, etc.
___8. These regions are categorized by global network H. Gap
connectivity, financial transactions, and stable
democratic governments, etc.
___9. A functional level of ideology which constructs contorted I. Ideology
descriptions of the social reality
___10. This explains how a group of people fit as one and the J. Core
expectations of every member within the community

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 Activity [Link]
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Explain/expound the following statement in not more than five (5) sentences:

“You also have to have military and economic power behind it, or else your
ideas cannot spread.”

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13 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To define economic globalization

2. To identify the actors that facilitate the international
monetary system
3. To understand international trade issues and trade policies
4. To articulate a stance on global economic integration

SOURCE: [Link]

14 | Page
 LESSON 2
THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

This chapter discusses the summary of “The Globalization of Economic Relations”

as presented by Istvan Benczes (2014) which was adopted from the “SAGE Handbook
of Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger, Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa
(2014).

Introduction

This chapter discusses the definition, foundation, and effects of economic

globalization. While the second section tackles on the development of the key global
monetary regimes that include the gold standard, the Bretton Woods System, and
European Monetary Integration. The last segment talks about trade rules and relations,
which will focus on the unilateral trade system of the late 19th and early 20th centuries
and the multilateral trade agreements of the post-World War II period (Benczes, 2014).

According to Held et al. (1999), globalization may be claimed as the

broadening, deepening, and rapid global interconnectedness in all facets (political,
technological, cultural, and economic) of modern-day social life (Giddens, 1999). Thus
globalization is a multidisciplinary course.
What is Economic Globalization?

According to the International Monetary Fund (2008), this refers to a historical

progression, which is the consequence of humanity’s modernization and technological
development. It may also denote a growing interconnection of global economies via
the mobility of goods, services, knowledge, and all forms of capital around the world.

The following are the various interrelated scopes of economic globalization:

(a) the globalization of goods and services in trade;

(b) the globalization of monetary and capital markets;
(c) the globalization of know-how and communication; and
(d) the globalization of production.

Economic globalization differs from internalization since the former refers to

functional interconnectedness between globally isolated activities while
internationalization speaks of the extension of economic activities of one country to
another (Dicken, 2004).

For hyperglobalists, nation-states are no longer the key economic institutions in

the global market. Humanity is now consuming extremely standardized international
products and services created by multinational corporations (Ohmae, 1995). According
to Reich (1991), globalization converts the local economy into an international one,
thus products, technologies, corporations, and industries are no longer treated as
national.

The new actors of political and cultural globalization today refer to the United
Nations (UN) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or civil society organizations
(CSOs). While the key actors of this modern-day global market economy are the
multinational corporations (MNCs) or transnational corporations (TNCs). This MNCs or
TNCs are the key motivating powers of economic globalization for the last 100 years,
and they account for about 67% of world exports (Gereffi, 2005).

For realists, they argue that these MNCs/TNCs still represent national interests
(Gilpin, 2001). However, for the pioneers of the Dependency School, they assert that
these are the vehicles through which the rich can exploit the underprivileged majority
(Feenstra, 1998). On the other hand, Gereffi (1999) introduced the idea on the “global

15 | Page
commodity chains” which emphasizes on the growing significance of international
buyers in a global market of dispersed production.

Is Economic Globalization a New Phenomenon?

Gills and Thompson (2006) assert that the process of globalization began since
Homo sapiens started moving from the African continent to the rest of the globe. Frank
and Gills (1993) argued that the foundation of globalization dates back about 5,000
years ago as manifested by the Silk Road which linked Asia, Africa and Europe.
When Adam Smith wrote his book “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations in 1776, he regarded the rediscovery of the Americas by Christopher
Columbus in 1492 and the rediscovery of the direct maritime route to India by Vasco de
Gama in 1498 as the two ultimate accomplishments in humanity’s historical accounts.

Other significant accomplishments were the technological developments of the

British Industrial Revolution after the Napoleonic Wars which spread to European and
North American continents. Monopolized trade during this period were controlled by
the first transnational corporations, the British East India Company (1600) and the Dutch
East India Company (1602). However, these TNCs did not favor global economic
integration due to their idea of nationalism (Gereffi, 2005).

The real global economic break-through came in the 19th century due to the
transport innovations via the use of steamships and railroads which decreased
transaction expenses and boosted both local and global economic exchanges (Held
et al., 1999). The relatively short period from 1870 to 1913 before World War I (1914 to
1919) is often regarded to as the “Golden Age of Globalization”. This period is
characterized by the presence of peace, free trade, and financial and economic
permanence (O'Rourke & Williamson, 1999).

The Neoclassical Solow Growth Model

Bairoch (1993) argues that the industrial revolution and global trade relations
strengthened economic growth and development among developed parts of the
globe, the rest of the world did not achieve such accomplishments. Thus, the
industrialization of the developed regions led to the de-industrialization of the poorer
regions.

Structuralism

Structuralism is a set of models which emerged from the 1950s to the 1970s and
affirm the notion that the North and South regions are in a structural association (Brown,
2001). The most recognized critical theory to the prevalent social partition of labor and
global inequities is presented by the “World-Systems Analysis”, which argues that
capitalism under globalization strengthens the structural arrangements of unequal
change.
According to Wallerstein (1983), capitalism produced the differing historical level
of wages in the global economic stage of the global system. Thus, rising disparity,
coupled with economic and political dependency, are not independent from
economic globalization.
For Rostow (1960), underdevelopment (i.e. the absence of economic growth and
development, coupled with poverty and malnourishment) is not the primary phase of a
historical and evolutionary uni-linear progress, rather the effect of colonialism and
imperialism. Wallerstein (1983) acknowledged imperialism as the product of the global
capitalist structure which propagated imbalanced exchange.
The present capitalist structure produced political systems that ensure an infinite
appropriation and amassing of surplus products from less developed countries (the
periphery) to the industrializing countries (the semi-periphery) and the highly
industrialized or highly developed countries (the core or metropole) (Arrighi, 2005).

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The International Monetary Systems

An international monetary system or regime (IMS) denotes the policies, practices,

tools, services, and institutions for carrying out global payments (Salvatore, 2007). In the
liberal custom, the key responsibility of an IMS is to assist international transactions on
trade and investment. An IMS is more than just money or currencies it also mirrors
economic supremacy since money is essentially political and is also considered as a
vital aspect of “high politics” of diplomacy (Cohen, 2000).
The Gold Standard
The foundations of the first IMS dates back to 19th century, when Britain assumed
gold mono-metallism in 1821. In 1867, the European countries, including United States,
shifted to gold at the International Monetary Conference in Paris. Gold was viewed to
ensure a non-inflationary, constant economic atmosphere, and a vehicle for hastening
global trade (Einaudi, 2001). When Prussia won over France in 1872, Germany joined the
global system. France decided to join six years later. The gold standard developed to
be the global monetary regime by 1880 when United States joined in 1879. In 1894, Italy
decided to participate and Russia followed in 1897. About 70% of the countries took
part in the gold standard prior to the eruption of World War I (Meissner, 2005).

The gold standard operated as a fixed exchange rate system, which made gold
as the lone global reserve. Member countries ascertained the gold content of their
national currencies which defined fixed exchange rates (or mint parities). Monetary
authorities were mandated to exchange their national currencies for gold at the
authorized exchange rate without restrictions on global markets (Bordo & Rockoff,
1996).

Due to the outburst of World War I, the gold standard came to an end. Member
countries gave up convertibility and stopped gold export in order to halt the exhaustion
of their national gold reserves. The 1930s turn out to be the gloomiest era of modern
economic history (Eichengreen & Irwin, 2009).

The Bretton Woods System and its Dissolution

According to Destler and Henning (1989), the allied nations started to negotiate
on a new global monetary regime under the structure of the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (US), in July 1944. Forty-
four countries decided to adopt the gold-exchange standard. At that time, the US
dollar was the lone exchangeable currency of the time. Thus, United States devoted
itself to trade and buy gold without limitations at US$35 per ounce. All participating
countries having non-convertible currencies were pegged to the US dollar.
The participating countries also established two global monetary institutions: (a)
The International Banks for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) which was
responsible for post-war reconstruction and development; and (b) The International
Monetary Fund (IMF) which encouraged global financial collaboration and
international trade. The IMF also provided short-term monetary assistance to countries in
cases of transitory balance of payments difficulties.
During the middle part of the 1960s, the US dollar became overvalued along with
other major currencies. As a reaction, foreign nations started to exhaust the US gold
reserves. This forced the United States to abandon the gold-exchange standard on
August 15, 1971. In 1973, developed countries agreed to float their currencies (prices of
currencies were determined by demand and supply forces). This arrangement in the
exchange rate policy was mandated by the Jamaica Accords in 1976 (Destler &
Henning, 1989).

The Plaza Accord

In 1985, the G7 countries decided to devaluate the US dollar as a consequence
of the heightening pressure of local US manufacturers and farmers to reinstate their
global competitiveness in the world market.

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The Louvre Accord

In 1987, the Louvre Accord was agreed upon in order to protect the US dollar from
further devaluation in the world market. The United States might have profited from
these internationally, however, one of the main losers was Japan. The appreciation of
the Japanese yen proved to be devastating for the Japanese local economy (Destler
& Henning, 1989).

The Washington Consensus

The neoliberal, pro-market Washington Consensus became successful in the

1990s. Its agenda were promoted and disseminated by the IMF as part of its
conditionalities in exchange for financial assistance. The IMF and the Washington
Consensus (and its free-market ideology) have been blamed for the unsuccessful
progress of the periphery. For Wallerstein (2005), the way for the periphery to develop is
not to “import-substitute” but to export orient productive activities.

The Morgenthau Plan

After World War II, the United States sought to carry out the Morgenthau Plan. The
idea was to downscale Germany’s economy to become a pastoral and agricultural
one. This was a reaction to USSR's (specifically, Russia) thrust for communism in the East
European region coupled with the growth of socialist and communist parties in the
West. However, the plan did not materialize and was abandoned by US. In contrary,
United States shifted its plans and promoted an economically and militarily powerful
Germany and Western Europe.

The Marshall Plan and the European Monetary Integration

This was United States’ post-war reconstruction and development program in 1948
for Western Europe, which was managed by the Organization for European Economic
Cooperation, the forerunner of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD). The astonishing growth and development of Western Europe
encouraged a closer collaboration of Western European countries which consequently
gave birth to the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951. The ECSC was followed
by the signing of the Rome Treaty in 1957, which founded the European Economic
Community (EEC) which consequently became the European Union (EU).

The six founding member-countries (West Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands,

Belgium and Luxembourg) aimed at the formation of a common market for the freer
movement of goods, services, capital and labor. The downfall of the Bretton Woods
System pressured the member-countries in 1979 to establish their own regional
monetary regime (the European Monetary System, EMS). Here, neither the US dollar, nor
gold can function in the stabilization process of exchange rates. Instead, the European
Exchange Rate Mechanism (EERM) was created (Gros & Thygesen, 1998).

In 1992, with the help of the late French President Francois Mitterrand and
German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, the foundations of a new European Economic and
Monetary Union (EMU) were established under the Maastricht Treaty. As early as 1999,
member-countries of the EMU replaced their national currencies and deputized
monetary policies to a supranational stage, managed by the European Central Bank
(ECB). Consequently, trade and capital transactions increased; local economies
became more interconnected; macroeconomic stability was reestablished, and the
euro grew to become the second most globally used currency (European Commission,
2008).

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David Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage Theory

According to Ricardo (1817) as cited in Samuelson (1995), a country such as

Britain could profit from a voluntary trade with Portugal even if Portugal is more
effective in producing both wine and clothing. For Britain, it should concentrate in the
production of the product with less disadvantage and let Portugal produce the other
product. The theory argues that every country must possess a comparative (relative)
advantage in the production of something irrespective of its original situation.

International Trade and Trade Policies

Reformist and radical (new left and neo-Marxian) theorists, such as Emmanuel
(1972) or Amin (1976), argued that the social partition of labor adds to the economic
development of the highly developed countries (HDCs or core) and hampers progress
of the less developed countries (LDCs or periphery). The economies of HDCs have the
finest of two worlds (as buyers of cheap primary commodities and as sellers of costly
manufactured products. On the other hand, LDCs have the worst of both worlds, as
buyers of expensive industrial products and as producers of cheap raw materials
(Singer, 1964). According to Amin (1993), if this global economy only benefits the HDCs
at the loss of the LDCs, then the periphery countries must implement a protectionist
policy in its extreme form of de-linking (i.e. to cut their ties with the HDCS or core
countries).

Unilateral Trade Order

During the 17th to 18th century, global trade in Europe concentrated more on the
accumulation of gold reserves which encouraged nation-states to export and limit
imports. This mercantilist or protectionist policy was branded as a zero-sum game in
global trade. Hence, trade and trade policies only furthered the interest of the
monarchs (royal family) from Portugal to Great Britain (now UK), which utilized their
accumulated bullions (gold) to support battles and consolidate power over their
domestic supporters (Dunham, 1930).

Bilateral Trade Agreements

Bilateral Trade Agreements also succeeded in Europe, one example of these is
the most-favored nation (MFN) policy. This policy demonstrates the principle which
stated that any negotiated mutual tariff cutbacks between two parties must benefit all
other trading partners without conditions (Lampe, 2008).

The United States adopted a protectionist policy (import substitution

industrialization) which imposed tariffs on manufactured goods with an average of 45%.
Even France, the Scandinavian countries, and UK from the 1860s onwards, imposed
protectionist measures due to the entry of low-cost agricultural commodities from their
foreign territories, Germany, and US. UK persisted to be hegemonic economically and
militarily. It also depended on the massive reserves of its territories, especially India
(Arrighi & Silver, 2003).

After World War I (1914-1919), the two World Economic Conferences in 1927 and
1933 did not succeed in reducing tariffs due to the refusal of US to take the lead as the
hegemonic descendant of a declining United Kingdom. In 1930, the Hawley Act in US
amplified tariffs in the country. As a consequence, trading partners of US retaliated
which lessened international trade by an average of 33 to 66 percent. To address the
issue, US enacted the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934 which halted the
further decline in global trade. This Law gave the US president the power to decide on
trade policies and lessened the burden put on the Congress for determining
protectionist trade policies. This trade policy was a return to the original notion of MFN
policy prior to the eruption of World War II (Irwin, 1998).

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Multilateralism: From the GATT to the WTO

In 1950, the US dollar became an international currency, supported by 67% of the

world's gold reserve (Green, 1999). US was also the leading aid donor (i.e., the Marshall
Plan). Owing to the downfall of the European and Japanese manufacturing industries
after World War II, USA’s manufacturing industry amplified which accounted for about
60% of the world's total in 1950, and its export amounted to about 33% of the world's
total (Branson et al., 1980).
At that time, the latest international trade regime must have been driven by the
International Trade Organization (ITO) agreement, which was one of the three pillars of
the Bretton Woods System, aside from the IMF and the IBRD, however, a series of
rejections in the US Congress obstructed its creation. In place of the ITO, nation-states
dedicated to lower down tariffs agreed to create the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) (Branson et al., 1980).
The GATT encouraged international trade through a sequence of multilateral
trade negotiations called “rounds”. The first five rounds concentrated on tariff cuts: (1)
1947 Geneva Tariffs; (2) 1949 Annecy Tariffs; (3) 1951 Torquay Tariffs; (4) 1956 Geneva
Tariffs; (5) 1960 Dillon Round Tariffs; (6) 1964 Kennedy Round Tariffs and anti-dumping
measures; (7) 1973 Tokyo Round Tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and “framework agreements”;
and (8) 1986 Uruguay Round Tariffs, non-tariff barriers, rules, services, intellectual,
property, dispute settlement, textiles, agriculture, and creation of the WTO (WTO, 2012).
The establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 forced US
to implement the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 and demanded for a new round, the
Kennedy Round. Its consequence was an across-the-board cutting (which replaced
the practice of item-by-item cuts) and reduction of non-tariff barriers (i.e., anti-dumping
measures) (Evans, 1971).
During the 1970s, the Tokyo Round besides tariff cuts, also approved a series of
codes of conduct (i.e., the “subsidies code” or the “government procurement code”
(Deardorff & Stern, 1983). The most popular multilateral trade negotiations occurred
under the Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994. While previous trade arrangements were
successful in reducing tariffs, a series of other corrective measures (i.e., non-tariff
barriers) were also implemented by nation-states. The Uruguay Round stretched
multilateral policies to current concerns and areas, such as agriculture which
concluded in a harsh dispute between the US and the EU.
According to Walter and Sen (2009), the foremost results of the trade
arrangements were the agreements on trade-related investment measures (TRIMs);
trade in services (GATS) and trade-related features of intellectual property rights (TRIPs).
These agreements were promoted by highly developed countries (HDCs) and targeted
less developed countries (LDCs) with massive service market potentials in finance and
telecommunications.
After 50 years of trade negotiations, the Uruguay Round came up with a genuine
global trade institution, the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO was established
on January 1, 1995 and become a formal forum for trade dialogs. Unlike the GATT, it is a
formally constituted association with legal personality. However, in 1999, the developing
nations epitomized a united movement for a new round of trade negotiations in
Seattle. This event revealed the power of NGOs/CSOs and anti-globalization
movements. These movements objected in favor of the LDCs and were against the
current status quo of international trade affairs; the hegemony of the US economy; the
personal interests of MNCs/TNCs; and the discriminatory mechanisms of the WTO in
favor of HDCs (Narlikar & Tussie, 2004).
In 2001, the quasi-official Doha Round must have become a round on economic
development, however, it failed due to the interests of the opposing parties (HDCs vs.
LDCs). LDCs asserted on the proper and full execution of the Uruguay Agreement
(especially in the area of agriculture), however, US promoted to keep labor and
environmental issues on the agenda. The deadlock between the two opposing sides,
motivated LDCs to cooperate and strengthen their leverage within the WTO by
creating a pressure group called the Group of 20 (G20). This conglomeration of

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countries accounts for almost 67% of the world's inhabitants and 25% of world-wide
agricultural export (Narlikar & Tussie, 2004).

Developing Countries and International Trade

Developing (third world) countries did not partake aggressively in multilateral

trade agreements for quite a long period of time. The so-called East Asian newly
industrializing countries (NICs) embraced an outward-oriented development approach.
However, a majority of these developing nations were not able to integrate successfully
into this trading scheme. Rather, they promoted an inward-looking, import-substitution
industrialization policy, which did not encourage trade liberalization (Findlay &
O'Rourke, 2007). Meanwhile, the HDCs were also hesitant to open their markets to
products (i.e., textile or agricultural) in which developing countries have a comparative
advantage.

The key transformation in this economic affairs occurred in 1964 when the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was institutionalized with
the collaborative stance of the developing countries. The objective of UNCTAD was to
encourage trade and mutual aid between and among the HDCs and LDCs (Salvatore,
2007). However, due to the two oil crises dilemma which affected the economic
activities of the HDCs, these countries adopted highly protectionist measures (both tariff
and non-tariff) in order to address the damaging effects of the economic stagnation in
the 1980s.
Developing countries started to aggressively participate in trade with the advent
of the Uruguay Round. This round was a grand bargain between the HDCs and LDCs
(Ostry, 2002). The HDCs were projected to open their markets to agricultural and textile
products, while the LDCs must accept the new rules on intellectual property rights and
services. LDCS opened up their service markets, however, their export of agricultural
commodities is still blocked by the HDCs. Agricultural products have a share of about
33% to 50% of the total economic production among HDCs. Without trade liberalization
in agriculture, it is difficult for LDCs to entirely assimilate themselves into the international
economy.

For Khor (1995), he saw the WTO as a medium by the HDCs to gain entry to the
markets of LDCs. While Wade (2003) criticized the three major trade agreements (i.e.
TRIMS, GATS, and TRIPS) saying that they constrained the set of industrial policies to
achieve development for the LDCS.

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 Activity 2.A
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. The first transnational corporation founded in 1600 A. The Marshall Plan
___2. The highly industrialized or highly developed B. British East India
countries (HICs/HDCs) Company
___3. This was agreed upon in 1987 in order to protect the C. Christopher
US dollar from further devaluation in the world market Columbus
___4. A global monetary institution responsible for post-war D. GATT
reconstruction and development
___5. The new actors of political and cultural globalization E. IMF
___6. This was USA’s post-war reconstruction and F. Periphery
Development program in 1948 for Western Europe
___7. Rediscovery of the Americas in 1492 G. Vasco de Gama
___8. A global trade institution created by the Uruguay Round H. The Morgenthau
and became a formal forum for trade dialogs with a Plan
formally constituted association with legal personality
___9. The less developed countries (LDCs) I. IBRD/WB
___10. Rediscovery of the direct maritime route to India in J. WTO
1498
___11. It replaced the ITO and was dedicated to lower down K. Core/Metropole
tariffs and encouraged international trade through a
series of multilateral trade negotiations called “rounds”
___12. An agreement in 1985 which decided to devaluate the L. Louvre Accord
US dollar as a consequence of the heightening pressure
of local US manufacturers and farmers
___13. A global monetary institution which provides short-term M. Semi-Periphery
monetary assistance to countries in cases of transitory
balance of payments difficulties
___14. The idea was to downscale Germany’s economy to N. UN and
become a pastoral and agricultural one NGOs/CSOs
___15. The newly-industrialized countries (NICs) O. Plaza Accord

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 Activity 2.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question: Explain your answer in not more than five (5 sentences).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of free trade? Do these

arguments fully hold in relation to both developed and developing countries?

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24 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To understand the creation, attributes, and types of global

corporations
2. To enumerate the functions and importance of global
corporations
3. To explain the development processes that occur among
global corporations
4. To appreciate the existence of the emerging global
corporations

SOURCE: [Link]
[Link]

25 | Page
 LESSON 3
MARKET INTEGRATION

This chapter discusses the summary of the “The Rise of the Global Corporation” as
presented by Deane Neubauer (2014) which was adopted from the “SAGE Handbook
of Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger, Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa
(2014).

The Historic Rise of the Global Corporation

The methodology used in the study of globalization which is also known as
“historical globalization” is based on arrangements in trade and exchange (Bentley,
2003; Gills & Thompson, 2006; Moore & Lewis, 2000). In the earlier times, globalization
was stimulated by the leading technologies in shipping and navigation (Harvey, 1990).

After the massive destructions of World War II, economic recovery and growth
were spearheaded by American corporations followed by the reentry of Japanese and
European companies into the international arena which later on were regarded as
multinational corporations (MNCs) (Barnet & Mueller, 1974).
How Do Global Corporations Function? What Constitutes a Global Corporation?
According to Iwan (2012), the current international corporation may be called as
any of the following:

International Companies. They import and export but have no investments outside
of their country.
Multinational Companies. They invest in foreign countries, but do not possess
coordinated commodity offerings in every nation.

Global Companies. They invest in and are existing in many countries. They sell their
goods and services to each local market.
Transnational Companies. They are complex corporations and have invested in
foreign nations. They also possess fundamental commercial facilities, however, give
decision making, research and development (R&D), and marketing authorities to every
individual overseas market.
This section will utilize the term “global corporation” to refer to all of these
classifications. A TNC is defined by the United Nations Center on Transnational
Corporations (UNCTC) as a business organization that involves itself in activities which
add value (manufacturing, extraction, services, marketing, etc.) in more than one
nation (UNCTC, 1991).

The post-war period can be delineated in three structural periods: (a) investment-
based globalization (1950-70); (b) trade-based globalization (1970-95); and (c) digital
globalization (1995 onwards) (Geriffi, 2001).

Another approach of validating the growth of TNCs/MNCs is to identify the

sources and levels of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). As Hedley shows, in 1900 only
European companies were principal investors. Later on, American firms started to follow
in the 1930s. An FDI is defined as the influx of private capital from a foreign source into a
receiving nation. FDIs were regarded as the principal components of international
economic development for third world countries (TWCs). But in reality, the bulk of FDIs in
the 1990s was among nations of the industrialized world (i.e., North America, Europe
and Japan) (Geriffi, 2001).

According to Gilpin (2000), the investment-based era was led by producer-driven

commodity or value chains dominated by companies possessing massive amounts of
capital using extensive and capital-intensive manufacturing strategies. Many
companies in the United States that operate via the producer-driven commodity chain
were structured based on the “fordist” management principles.

26 | Page
 The advent of Japan as a principal producer of automobiles and consumer
electronic products since the 1970s introduced new prototypes of effective
manufacturing strategies which centered on quality and flexible production. These are
seen by American companies as challenges to their dominant positions on commodity
design, manufacturing efficiency, and quality which resulted to an advanced
reinvention of the US corporate model, especially in the industrial sector (Risi, 2005).

Corporate brands signify a company’s corporate activities and evaluate a

corporation’s prominence in the international arena based on the value of its
commodities and services. This is also recognized as “Brand Finance”, a current trend
which ranks global companies on the value of their brands, aggregate revenue,
earnings, etc. (Brand-Finance, 2012). In this sense, technology brands developed as the
greatest and most valuable global corporate brands in 2012 with Apple surpassing
Google as Number 1 with a brand finance worth of US$70.6 billion. Meanwhile,
Amazon’s brand finance value increased by 61 per cent over the previous year (2011).
Digitalization also influenced the entire operation of how international
corporations function. Producer-driven commodity chains now try to reduce the effects
of time and distance in terms of design, finance and accounting, advertising and
brand development, legal services, inventory control etc. Digitalization is innovating the
usual value chain of manufacturing centered on improvement along the following
(Capgemini, 2012):
Product Design and Innovation are replaced with innovations via digital product
design;

Labor Intensive Manufacturing is substituted by digitizing the factory shop floor

making it more capital-intensive;

Supply Chain Management is changed by digital supply chain management; and

Marketing Sales and Service is innovated by digital customization.

Buyer-driven commodity chains gradually become digital with companies’
specialization in Internet marketing of products and services to increase market share
over traditional marketing and retailing. The last thirty or more years observed the
revolution of the apparel industry motivated by digital processes from design, to
ordering, factory processing, inventory control, delivery, branding, marketing and
advertising (Capgemini, 2012).

Kentor (2005) studied the economic and spatial growth of multinational corporate
linkages and found out that the top 100 largest MNCs/TNCs owned 1,288 subsidiaries in
1962, and after 36 years, the top 100 manufacturing corporations owned about 10,000
subsidiaries. The top 44 MNCs in the top 100 global corporations in year 2009 produced
revenues of US$6.4 trillion, which is tantamount to 11% of the world’s GDP (Global
Trends, 2013).

What is Different about this Phase of Global Corporate Development?

The alleged developing economies of Brazil, India, China, and South Africa
(BRICS) became the most vibrant region of international corporate growth, as reflected
by their noteworthy FDIs over the past 30 years. The number of MNCs from the BRICS
(listed in the Fortune Global 500 that ranks companies in terms of revenue) rose from 47
companies in 2005 to 95 in 2010. Capital flows now originate from China and India. For
instance, China's Lenovo company purchased IBM's PC business and India's investment
in British companies including Jaguar Land Rover (Economist, 2011). China is the
leading outward investor among developing economies with projected assets in 2009
of approximately US$1 trillion (OECD, 2010).

27 | Page
 Wolfsensohn, suggested a “four-speed world” categorization which distinguishes
economies as Affluent, Converging, Struggling and Poor, with the BRICS dominating the
growth of the convergent group. With 40% of the globe’s inhabitants, the BRICS signifies
a major power in both worldwide production and consumption (Wolfsensohn, 2007).

According to The Boston Consulting Group (2009), the following are some
“Emerging Market Global Corporations”:

1. Basic Element (Russia) is a world leader in alumina production.

2. Bharat Forge (India) is one of the world's largest forging companies.
3. BYD Company (China) is the world's largest manufacturer of nickel-cadmium
batteries.
4. CEMEX (Mexico) has developed into one of the world's largest cement producers.
5. China International Marine Containers Group (China) is the world's largest
manufacturer of shipping containers.
6. Cosco Group (China) is one of the largest shipping companies in the world.
7. Embraer (Brazil) has surpassed Canada's Bombardier as the market leader in regional
jets.
8. Galanz Group (China) has a 45 per cent share of the European and a 25 per cent
share of the US microwave market.
9. Hisense (China) is the number one supplier of flat-panel TVs to France.
10. Johnson Electric (China) is the world's leading manufacturer of small electric motors.
11. Nemak (Mexico) is one of the world's leading suppliers of cylinder head and block
casings for the automotive industry.
12. Sistema (Russia) is a conglomerate with a focus on telecommunications.
13. Tata Chemicals (India) is an inorganic-chemicals producer with a significant global
market share of soda ash.
14. Techtronic Industries Company is the number one supplier of power tools to Home
Depot.
15. Wipro (India) is the world's largest third-party engineering services company.
In 2009 China was the primary trade partner of Brazil, India and South Africa, and
Tata of India was the most dynamic investor in sub-Saharan Africa.

Government-owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs or state-owned

corporations) may be defined as businesses composing of parent companies and their
overseas partners in which the government possesses control (full, majority, or significant
minority), whether or not registered on a stock exchange play an important part in
these emerging or developing economies (UNCTAD-WIR, 2011). State-owned
corporations may comprise both national and local governments such as regions,
provinces and cities.

Another description of China's state-owned MNCs affirms that these are legacy
institutions (relics) of China's command-socialist system that propagates in its revised
neo-capitalist economy. Companies that lack economic efficiency and competitive
discipline are in effect subsidized or funded by the Chinese state which gives them
market leverage to become globally competitive (Woetzel, 2008; Greenacre, 2012).

28 | Page
 Activity 3.A
(Matching Type)
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. A company that invests, exists, and sells its goods and A. Transnational
services to each local market in foreign countries Company
___2. A commodity chain that uses massive amounts of B. Buyer-driven
capital-intensive manufacturing strategies Commodity Chain
___3. In 2012, this MNC was ranked “Number 1” with a brand C. Digitalization
finance amounting to US$70.6 billion
___4. This is defined as the influx of private capital from a D. Producer-driven
foreign source into a receiving nation Commodity Chain
___5. Under the “four-speed world” categories of Wolfsensohn, E. GOCCs
the BRICS fall under this characterization
___6. A company that imports and exports but have no F. Foreign Direct
investments outside of its country Investment (FDI)
___7. Under the “four-speed world” categories of Wolfsensohn, G. Global Company
the highly-developed countries fall under this type
___8. They are classified as developing economies as reflected H. Affluent
by their noteworthy FDIs over the past 30 years
___9. This is the other term for state-owned corporations I. International
Company
___10. A complex corporation that gives decision making, J. Lenovo
research and development, and marketing authorities
to every individual foreign market
___11. This is a current trend which ranks global companies on K. BRICS
the value of their brands, aggregate revenue, earnings,
etc.
___12. A Chinese company that purchased IBM's PC business L. Apple
___13. This innovation among companies reduces the effects M. Multinational
of time and distance in terms of design, advertising, Company
brand development, inventory control, etc.
___14. A commodity chain that uses a more labor-intensive N. Brand Finance
production strategies
___15. A company that invests in foreign countries, but do not O. Converging
possess coordinated commodity offerings in every
nation

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 Activity 3.B
(Essay Type)
Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question: Explain your answer in not more than five (5) sentences.

How do digital technologies transform the structures and operations of global

corporations?

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31 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To understand how nation-states interact and comply with

global standards in a world of economic interdependence
2. To recognize the importance of economic and political
Integration among the members of the European Union
3. To appreciate the significance of international law and
universal principles
4. To explain how transnational activism and communication
networks affect governments

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 4
THE GLOBAL INTER-STATE SYSTEM

This chapter discusses the summary of the “Governments and Citizens in a

Globally Interconnected World of States” as presented by Hans Schattle (2014) which
was adopted from the “SAGE Handbook of Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger,
Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa (2014).

Introduction

The 21st century illustrates that globalization dispersed political and economic
supremacy beyond the state. Countries today are answerable to various global rules
and standards. States at present face various types of pressures (i.e., advances toward
supranational or regional integration on one side and forces of domestic fragmentation
on the other side. According to Rosenau (2003), these opposing dynamics is called
“fragmegration”.
After World War II (1945), the United Nations (UN) had 51 founding member-states.
In 2012, the organization had 193 members. Palestine obtained acknowledgement in
November 2012 as a “nonmember observer state” of the UN. This is also the status held
by the Vatican. When the People's Republic of China (PRoC) took over mainland China
in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China (Taiwan) as China's representative in the
United Nations, Taiwan totally lost its UN membership and its permanent seat in the UN
Security Council in 1971. Taiwan is trying for years (but without success) to be
acknowledged as a “non-member observer” standing in the UN (Schattle, 2008).
According to Max Weber (1997) a “state” (a political concept) is an obligatory
political association having endless operations as long as its administrative staff
effectively gains a claim to the monopoly of the use of legitimate physical force in the
execution of its mandate. Regimes and constitutions come and go, but states
continuously endure.
The word “nation” (an ethnic concept) emphasizes organic relations that hold
clusters of people as one and promotes a sense of allegiance and belongingness. At
present, nations are seen as communities of people that unite citizens together based
on various cross-cutting identities: ethnicity, language, religion, etc. (Anderson, 1991).

The State in a World of Economic Interdependence

The word globalization is associated with global free-market capitalism; the
intensification of transnational enterprises, the easy flows of capital across
intercontinental borders. Both the supporters and detractors of the Washington
Consensus and its neo-liberal stress on deregulation, privatization, and free trade view
globalization as commanding a forced choice among nation-states which is to comply
with free-market principles or suffer the risk of being left behind.

Thomas Friedman (2000) introduced the notion on the “Golden Straitjacket”

which explains how countries are now obligated to adhere to rules that suit the likings of
investment houses and corporate executives (the “Electronic Herd”) who speedily
transfer capital (money and other resources) into states preferred as adaptable to the
dictates of transnational firms. On the other hand, withdraw investments from nation-
states which are believed to be uncompetitive. Hence countries rely heavily on the
Electronic Herd for investments (Friedman, 2000).
Former national leaders such as Ronald Reagan (former US president) and
Margaret Thatcher (former prime minister of UK) pursued the laissez-faire economic
policy of Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman. This policy on the “invisible hand”
(no/less government intervention in economic affairs) generated the conditions for
deregulation, privatization and free trade to flourish worldwide. This encouraged the
least developed countries to attract the capital of the globe’s wealthiest banks,
companies, and foreign investors in the expectation of raising their citizens’ standard of
living (Frieden, 2006).

33 | Page
 Under import substitution policy, Mexico failed to produce a feasible car industry.
Nonetheless, it was able to develop its global market for automobile parts. Growers in
Argentina and New Zealand generated profit exporting winter fruits and vegetables to
Northern Hemisphere buyers. Firms in Thailand and Turkey, facing difficulties of
borrowing money domestically, now had access to cheap and abundant overseas
finance. These nations and their populace benefitted out of foreign markets to hasten
their growth (Frieden, 2006).

Experts on neoliberalism argue that if LDCs follow their recommendations on free

and open markets, they would later on become newly-industrialized countries (NICs).
However, in reality what the HDCs planned was to sustain control of the LDCs wealth,
raw materials, and cheap labor (Barajas, 2004).
The Japanese rejected American ideas, and focused more on developing
globally competitive capabilities by protecting and funding infant industries (i.e., steel,
consumer electronics, and semiconductors). In South Korea, the most prosperous
companies are the steel maker POSCO (established with government investment) and
Samsung (a huge family-dominated conglomerate with wide-ranging special affiliations
with the government in various interlocking industries and technologies (Prestowitz,
2012).
According to Clarke (2004), very minimal wages, awful working environments,
and negligible environmental standards entice MNCs to establish sweatshops/firms
(usually through subcontractors) in many LDCS. These LDCS only became aware when
accidents happen (i.e., series of factory fires in Bangladesh in 2012; the collapse of a
factory building in April 2013 in which more than 1,100 workers died producing clothes
for retailers ranging from Benetton to Wal-Mart).
The detractors of economic globalization encourage states to define economic,
social and environmental objectives for their national development. In addition states
must compel MNCs to meet these priorities and to establish new systems of
participatory democracy whereby citizens become effectually involved in determining
international policies on trade, investment and finance (Clarke, 2004).

Economic and Political Integration: The Case of the European Union

Due to intensifying economic interdependence, states decided to form regional
linkages with neighboring countries that encourage commerce and economic
cooperation. Some of these include the African Union (AU); the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); trading blocs (i.e., North American Free Trade
Agreement - NAFTA); the Caribbean Community (Comunidad del Caribe).

After World War II, the political leaders in Europe, launched the European Coal
and Steel Community (ECSC). Currently, the European Union (EU) which has 28 member
states (with Croatia becoming the 28th member in July 2013). The EU has a single
currency (euro) and monetary system. It also established a supranational European
Parliament with increasing legislative powers alongside the Council of Ministers. The EU
Parliament composed of elected representatives from the national governments of
member-states. In 1992, with the adoption of the Maastricht Treaty, the signatories
approved a common citizenship that gives citizens of the member-states the rights to
live, work, vote and even run for office in European parliamentary elections outside
one's country (Council of Europe, 2012).

According to the Council of Europe (2012), by the summer of 2012, there were
campaigns for “fiscal union” among the 17 member-states of the Eurozone to
complement monetary union. Thus the national budgets of these Eurozone countries will
be subject to authorization and oversight by the UE’s European Commission. The EU
Parliament also passed a law in September 2013 to administer closer integration and
regulation of the banking sector.
From 1952, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) operated as the highest dispute
resolution body for the EU and its forerunners. It set forth provisions such as “direct

34 | Page
effect” (EU laws take precedence over national laws when the two sets of laws come
into conflict) and “supremacy” (member-states are obligated to follow EU laws)
(Council of Europe, 2012).

The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) which is a portion of an even bigger
association (the Council of Europe) advocates the European Convention of Human
Rights (ECHR), currently ratified by all 47 of its member-states. Any person, group of
persons, or CSO can file ECHR cases against a member-state, and member-states can
also initiate cases against each other. The ECHR has dispensed groundbreaking
decisions in various areas (i.e., freedom of expression, freedom of religion, protection
from discrimination, and the right to a fair trial) which are frequently violated by
member states (Council of Europe, 2012).

The Rise of International Law and Universal Principles

According to Doyle (2011), the failure of the League of Nations before World War
II reinforced the cooperative will among leaders of the world to establish another
international association that would assist global negotiations and uphold human rights
and fundamental freedoms. Leaders of the Allies (US, UK, France, Russian and China)
collectively established the “United Nations” while fighting the war against the Axis
Powers (Japan, Germany, and Italy). The San Francisco Conference in 1945 established
the organization that endures up to this day.

The system has various limitations: (a) the United Nations (UN) has never surpassed
the states system; and (b) it only functions as a forum for countries to air their grievances
and try to resolve them; (c) the Security Council and its outmoded structure awards
veto power only to each of the five countries that won the Second World War; and (d)
the General Assembly’s lack of power with its state-based configuration (Doyle, 2011).

Other criticisms against the UN also include the Cold War deadlock between the
United States and the Soviet Union which made it problematic for the Security Council
to reach cooperative judgments. In addition, the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 without
the consent of the Security Council signified that countries invading foreign nations
unilaterally and in violation of the UN Charter would suffer no penalties of their actions
aside from criticisms and hatred. The organization also was not able to prevent many
violence and killings from happening globally during its existence (Doyle, 2011).

Some of the shortcomings of the UN were gradually addressed with the formation
of ad hoc tribunals that sentenced several persons from Rwanda and the former
Yugoslavia of war crimes. Another significant accomplishment was the permanent
establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2002. Its role is to prosecute
individuals accused of genocide and other crimes against humanity. However, China,
India, and the US are not among the 122 states that authorized the court's founding
treaty, the Rome Statute. This signifies that adherence to international law ultimately
remains a matter of choice among states, and states can often evade international
law without any sanction (Doyle, 2011).
According to Doyle (2011), the UN also works with countries across the globe to
advocate human rights and humanitarian values. The UN Security Council promotes the
doctrine of “Responsibility to Protect” (R2P) when it approved in early 2011 a “no-fly
zone”, an arms embargo, and the use of “hard power” in Libya's civil war. This strategy
aimed to protect civilians from government attacks and gave the revolutionary forces
a better chance at dethroning the government of Moammar Gaddafi.

The R2P doctrine indicates an intensifying willingness among states to interfere in

the unlawful undertakings of governments which are unable to safeguard their own
citizens. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), with Britain, France and the
United States taking the lead, intervened in Libya in ousting Gaddafi through its NATO
air strikes.

35 | Page
 In Syria, Bashar Hafez al-Assad stayed in power at the start of 2014 even though
his regime and military supporters committed various atrocities against thousands of
citizens (fighters and protesters), including a chemical weapons attack in August 2013
that killed an estimated 1,400 civilians. After U.S. President Barack Obama threatened
to launch limited military strikes against Syria but obtained little support from Americans
and foreign countries, the Syrian regime sworn in an agreement worked out by the
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and the United Nations Security
Council to extinguish its stockpiles of chemical armaments. In this manner, the R2P
doctrine symbolizes that the protection of human beings over any particular
government or regime must take priority (Doyle, 2011).

According to Nye (2005), the partnership among countries in some cases means
better provision of government services. However, in some instances it may also mean
infringements by the “national security state” into civil liberties and privacy rights. These
were evident in the immense global surveillance operations engineered by the United
States National Security Agency (USNSA) and its government and business associates
worldwide. These included interceptions of e-mail messages and tracking of mobile
phones. Global travelers and migrants are conscious that passport control officers take
compulsory photographs and collect fingerprints of people passing through
checkpoints. These make it easier for national governments to impart facts on the
biometrics and travel patterns of countless people. Other countries also include
“biometric authentication” components in the issuance of passports and visas.
States also compete not only for economic development but also for moral
credibility. This is evident on how various CSOs rank countries and publish annual
indexes worldwide. Some of these include the following: (a) Transparency International's
“corruption perceptions index”; (b) Freedom House's “freedom in the world index” of
political rights and civil liberties; (c) the “democracy index” published by The Economist
Intelligence Unit; (d) the “press freedom index” compiled by Reporters without Borders;
(e) the “failed states index” from Foreign Policy Magazine; (f) the Fund for Peace; and
(g) the “better life index” launched in 2011 by the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD). All of these have an impact on a country's
global competitiveness and “soft power” (Nye, 2005).

States as Targets: The Rise of Transnational Activism

According to Keck and Sikkink (1998), transnational activism has roots that go
back to 19th century campaigns against slavery; against foot-binding practices in
China; and for women's voting rights. Keck and Sikkink coined the phrase “boomerang
pattern of influence” to describe what can happen when domestic CSOs/NGOs on the
losing ends of political struggles join forces with compatible foreign advocacy groups
that can pressure the national governments in question.

The Norwegian Nobel Committee, a transnational CSO called attention to the

rising trend of Internet activism by awarding the 1997 Peace Prize to the International
Campaign to Ban Landmines. The global advocacy campaign to ban landmines as a
weapon of war specifically targeted states and urged them to sign the Ottawa Treaty
that now has 160 signatories. However, similar to the International Criminal Court, some
of the world's largest countries (China, Russia, and the United States) have not signed
the treaty (Keck & Sikkink, 1998).
The Global Justice Movement called for alternatives to neoliberal economic
globalization. Scholars and activists trace the contemporary origins of this movement to
the transnational campaign launched in 1994 in Chiapas, Mexico, by the Zapatista
Army of National Liberation in response to the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) (Barlow & Clarke, 1997).

In November 1999, the “Alter-globalization Movement became famous during the

meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in Seattle. The media focused more on
street disruptions and violent incidents and branded it as an “anti-globalization”
movement rather than an alternative model of globalization more attentive to human

36 | Page
rights, participatory democracy, local control, sustainability and cultural diversity
(Cavanagh & Mander, 2004). The implications of this proved that people obtained
public consciousness on globalization. Hence they think of themselves as “global
citizens” who link this idea with concepts such as awareness, responsibility, participation,
and cross-cultural empathy (Schattle, 2008).
The entry of the World Social Forum (WSF) made it a counterpoint to the World
Economic Forum (WEF) (Steger & Wilson, 2012). The World Economic Forum is lavishly
funded, efficiently organized, and easy to observe online with a comprehensive
website and abundantly archived documents and transcripts of proceedings (print,
audio and video). On the other hand, the World Social Forum avoids hierarchy and
centralized control which exists without a single permanent website. Unlike the world's
largest corporations and national governments that back up the WEF and advocate
neoliberalism, the WSF promotes a more socially and environmentally-responsive
alternatives to globalization.

According to Busby (2010), the social media revolution has lifted advocacy
groups and social movements into an exciting new phase and energized CSOs at all
levels. The revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt in early 2011 showed how engaged citizens
could topple dictatorships. Protests in Myanmar (Burma) which were encouraged by
cyber-activists eventually pushed the government there to open up partially. In China,
citizens are more linked and vocal than before, even if the government is still working to
manipulate public opinion and crush dissent (Shirk, 2010).

Social media platforms also eased the way for citizens’ groups across the “global
south” to build network partners. Facebook, Twitter and their local counterparts
worldwide are now utilized in transnational advocacy movements (Gladwell, 2010;
Starbird & Palen, 2012).

Communication Networks, New Media and the State

According to Morozov (2011), technological advances made it easier for

authoritarian states from Russia to Saudi Arabia, and to Myanmar to silence bloggers
utilizing software programs that filter Internet content and denial-of-service attacks,
making the targeted computers or web servers momentarily inaccessible. Even the
world's most isolated and repressive state (North Korea) maintains websites boasting
their national leaders and stirring out colorful news releases.

Ambassadors worldwide now utilize “public diplomacy” and maintain Facebook

groups, Twitter feeds, and dual blog postings written in both languages (that of the
country they represent and the language of the state that they are serving). Across all
levels of government, from city halls to presidential offices, interactive “e-government”
sites have spread worldwide in partnership with constitutional democracies. Citizens
can converse with government officials through the Internet, not only to obtain
information about government policies and initiatives but to communicate their
grievances (Coleman & Blumler, 2009).
There is also an increase in state-funded television networks. No longer is the
American vanguard of CNN a hegemonic presence. BBC World (United Kingdom), Al
Jazeera English (Qatar), Al Arabiya (Saudi Arabia), France 24, Russia Today, CCTV
(China), NHK World (Japan) are some of the most evident players in this rising industry
(Coleman & Blumler, 2009).

Television news performed a crucial role during the dismantling of the Berlin Wall in
1989 as live news from West Germany ignited public demands in East Berlin to open the
checkpoints. Similarly, Al Jazeera played a significant role in the Arab Spring revolutions,
broadcasting videos filmed by protesters through their mobile phones and sent via e-
mail to television studios (McChesney & Pickard, 2011). Al Jazeera tends to go easy on
the Emir of Qatar, while Russia Today features a Putinesque view of the world (Seib,
2008). In this current world of government-run broadcasting, the lines amid journalism

37 | Page
and propaganda are often blurred and concealed, and also defended, if not
legitimized, by the government ministries shelling out the money.
The world's “digital citizens” who have enough Internet access and possess the
capability to make the most of cyberspace now evaluate for themselves which sources
are credible and compelling enough to follow on a continuing basis (Jamieson &
Cappella, 2010; Sunstein,2009).

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 Activity 4.A
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. It calls for alternatives to neoliberal economic A. Alter-globalization

globalization and a response to the North American Movement
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
___2. This doctrine symbolizes that the protection of human B. Palestine and
beings over any particular government or regime Vatican
must take priority
___3. It was permanently established in 2002 and its role is C. Allied Nations
to prosecute individuals accused of genocide and
other crimes against humanity
___4. It refers to opposing dynamics of supranational or D. Laissez-faire
regional integration on one side and forces of Economics
domestic fragmentation on the other side
___5. It was composed of US, UK, France, Russia and China E. Ottawa Treaty
which won in World War II
___6. With Britain, France and the United States, this F. Fragmegration
organization intervened in Libya in ousting Gaddafi
through its air strikes
___7. It is a reaction to the World Economic Forum that G. Global Justice
promotes a more socially and environmentally Movement
responsive alternatives to globalization
___8. This agreement approved a common citizenship that H. European Coal and
gives citizens of EU the rights to live, work, vote and Steel Community
even run for office in European parliamentary (ECSC)
elections
___9. This was the predecessor of the European Union (EU) I. State
which currently has 28 member states
___10. They are acknowledged as “nonmember observer J. International Criminal
states” of the UN Court (ICC)
___11. It was composed of Japan, Germany, and Italy K. Axis Powers
which lost the battle in World War II
___12. This policy advocates the “invisible hand” (no or less L. Responsibility to
government intervention in economic affairs) Protect
___13. It is an obligatory political association having M. Maastricht Treaty
endless operations as long as it gains a claim to the
monopoly of the use of legitimate physical force in
the execution of its mandate
___14. A recipient of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize which N. NATO
advocated an international campaign to ban
landmines as a weapon of war
___15. It is an alternative model of globalization more O. World Social Forum
attentive to human rights, participatory democracy,
local control, sustainability and cultural diversity

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 Activity 4.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question: Explain your answer in not more than five (5) sentences.

How is globalization changing the overall balance of power between states and
citizens?

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41 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To identify the roles and functions of the United Nations

2. To identify the challenges of global governance in the 21st
century
3. To explain the relevance of the state and globalization

SOURCE: [Link]
[Link]
[Link]

42 | Page
 LESSON 5
CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

This lesson presents the summary of the article, “The United Nations Meets the
Twenty-First Century: Confronting the Challenges of Global Governance” authored by
Thomas G. Weiss and Ramesh Thakur which was adopted from the “SAGE Handbook of
Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger, Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa
(2014). Other sources were also included to supplement the discussion presented by the
authors.

Global Governance

Globalization entails the conduct of numerous transactions that go beyond the

borders of states. These varying transactions necessitate system and order. Thus, it can
be said that to maintain order and system in all these international dealings brought
about by globalization, global governance is imperative.

Global governance is defined as “the sum of laws, norms, policies and institutions
that define, constitute and mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures,
citizens, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations and the market — the
wielders and the objects of the exercise of international public power (Weiss & Thakur,
2014). It brings together diverse actors to coordinate collective action to provide global
public goods, particularly peace and security, justice, functioning markets and unified
standards for trade and industry. It is a rules-based order without a government, thus,
there is no central authority. Actors in global governance depend on multilateralism.

Global governance has three main elements, namely consensus, rules, and
membership of multiple national governments. These elements require a binding mode
of interaction. Multilateralism, which is defined as a situation in which several
different countries or organizations work together to achieve something or deal with
a problem ([Link] facilitates such
interaction and helps sustain the rules-based global order ([Link]
and-views/strengthening-global-governance-multilateralism/).

Aside from the emergence of collective-action problems that cannot be solved

by a single state alone, another reason that can explain why global governance exists
is the growing importance of non-state actors such as the private sector, market, MNCs,
and civil society. The complexity of the present society makes the government unable
to solely satisfy the demands of its citizens. As mentioned by Weiss and Thakur (2014) in
their article, “Society has become too complex for citizens’ demands to be satisfied
solely by governments. Instead civil society actors play increasingly active roles in
shaping norms, laws and policies. They are participants in global governance as
advocates, activists and policy makers. They provide additional levers to people and
governments to improve the effectiveness and enhance the legitimacy of public policy
while also posing challenges of representation, accountability and legitimacy.”

The leading governance actor with an international membership today is United

Nations (UN). This international organization not only involves sovereign states but also
non-state entities. It was founded in 1945, in the wake of World War II with the main
purpose of preventing future conflicts between states. It is mandated to preserve global
security through the Security Council. According to Hurd (2007), UN represents a
structure of authority that rests on institutionalized state practices and generally
accepted norms (Weiss & Thakur, 2014). However, UN should not be understood as a
new international system paradigm that will replace the Westphalian sovereignty.

Aside from UN, there are other institutions that play important roles in global
governance such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

43 | Page
Roles and Functions of United Nations

UN, as an international organization, has several roles and functions. UN has a

role in “preventing and managing conflicts, regulating armaments, championing
human rights and international humanitarian law, liberating the colonized, providing
economic and technical aid in newly liberated countries, organizing elections,
empowering women, educating children, feeding the hungry, sheltering the
dispossessed and displaced, housing the refugees, tending to the sick and coordinating
disaster relief and assistance (Weiss & Thakur, 2014).

The following are the four essential roles of UN in identifying and diagnosing
problems (Weiss & Thakur, 2014).:

1. Managing Knowledge

This involves the recognition of the existence of the problem, the collection of
solid data about the nature of the problem, and identification of its causes to explain
the problem. The United Nations uses its convening capacity and mobilizing power to
help funnel knowledge from outside and to ensure its discussion and dissemination
among governments. UN-sponsored world conferences, heads of government summits
and blue- ribbon commissions and panels have been used for framing issues, outlining
choices, making decisions; for setting, even anticipating, the agenda; for framing the
rules, including for dispute settlement; for pledging and mobilizing resources; for
implementing collective decisions; and for monitoring progress and recommending
mid-term corrections and adjustments.

2. Developing Norms

Upon identification of problems and collection of knowledge, UN helps create

new norm of behavior usually through summit conferences, international panels and
commissions. New norms will then be institutionalized. However, since our societies vary,
there would always be the reality of norm variation. Though norms may vary, contested
norms can still become institutionalized both within and among states.

International norms can be transmitted down into national politics and

incorporated into domestic laws through state structures, such as the government. UN
promulgates norms with the consent of most of its members. This process sustains, not
erodes, the prerogatives of sovereigns.

3. Formulating Recommendations

The UN’s ability to convene and consult widely plays an enormous part in its
ability to formulate recommendations for specific policies, institutional arrangements
and regimes that follow from identifying and diagnosing a problem and developing a
norm of desirable changes in behavior and approach by states.

4. Institutionalizing Ideas

Institutions can facilitate problem solving even though they do not possess any
coercive powers. Institutions give extended life to an idea because they can outlast the
individuals who first had it. Institutions to attack global problems require substantial
financing and backing, which makes them the kind of concrete step that can be
initiated by governments as an indication that they are taking an issue seriously. Once
knowledge has been acquired, norms articulated and policies formulated, an existing
institution can oversee their implementation and monitoring.

44 | Page
Challenges of Global Governance in the 21st Century

Contemporary issues such as women empowerment, regulation of the skies and

seas, cybercrime, climate change, urbanization, pandemics, terrorism, weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs) require multidisciplinary perspectives, efforts across sectors
with firm central direction and inspired leadership (Weiss & Thakur, 2014). Thus, the UN,
as the leading international organization needs to meet these requirements to be able
to adapt to the changes we face now.

The list of global governance issues addressed by multilateral bodies is long:

human rights, human development, labor, health, peace, conflict, disarmament,
communication, finance, and environment. Trade and economic integration, however,
have been the most visible aspects of international cooperation in the past year
([Link]
multilateralism/).

Currently, the multilateral system of trade governance and cooperation for

economic growth is under stress, induced mostly by world’s two largest economies.
Individual positions of the US and China on tariffs, disputes, and economic cooperation
are overshadowing the multilateral governance systems. Trade facilitation measures,
long considered the pathway for improved prosperity, are at risk of being delayed or
even overlooked. This would be detrimental for developing and developed countries
alike in Asia and Europe. The smaller and more economically vulnerable countries are
at greater risk of being left behind ([Link]
views/strengthening-global-governance-multilateralism/).

Coordination and cooperation are not only increasingly complex but

also problematic as a result of the number of actors and the existence of decentralized
and informal, largely self-regulatory groupings. For instance, the UN system and
International Governmental Organizations (lGOs) in general that collectively underpin
global governance are inadequately resourced, do not have adequate policy
authority and resource-mobilizing capacity and sometimes incoherent in their separate
policies and philosophies (Weiss & Thakur, 2014).

Many public policy decisions and practices have been transferred to the
international level, raising a number of pressing normative challenges to the
Westphalian foundations of multilateralism as citizens become rights-holders and states
are deemed to have responsibilities of sovereignty (Weiss & Thakur, 2014).

The UN member-states question the legitimacy of the rules promulgated if they

do not agree with them and when they fail to implement or comply with the rules there
is little enforcement capacity available to compel them to do so (Weiss & Thakur, 2014).

The 2004 report of the Panel of Eminent Persons on United Nations Relations with
Civil Society presents points that help determine how UN meets the challenges of global
governance in the 21st century (UN, 2014):

1. Multilateralism no longer concerns governments alone but is now multifaceted,

involving many constituencies. The UN must develop new skills to service this new
way of working.

2. It must become an outward-looking or network organization, catalyzing the

relationships needed to get strong results and not letting the traditions of its
formal processes be barriers.

3. It must strengthen global governance by advocating universality, inclusion,

participation and accountability at all levels.

45 | Page
 4. It must engage more systematically with world public opinion to become more
responsive, to help shape public attitudes and to bolster support for
multilateralism.

______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5.A
(Definition of Terms)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Using your own words, provide a brief definition for the following concepts:

1. Global Governance:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Multilateralism:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. International Norms:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. Public Goods:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. International Organizations:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

46 | Page
 Activity 5.B
(Essay Type)

Essay Question: Limit your answer to a maximum of five (5) sentences only.

In what ways does the United Nations (UN) system of governance contribute to
the formation of global consciousness?

47 | Page
48 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To define the term “global south”

2. To differentiate the “global south” from the “third world”
3. To analyze how a new conception of global relations
emerged from the experiences of Latin American countries

49 | Page
SOURCE: [Link]
[Link]

50 | Page
 LESSON 6
GLOBAL DIVIDES: THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH

The North and South Divide

The beginning of the categorization of states between North and South can be
traced back to the Cold War Era. The Cold War is considered as a geopolitical,
ideological, and economic struggle between two world superpowers which are United
States (US) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) in 1947. During that period,
states were categorized based on their alignment between USSR and America. Non-
communist, high income, and developed countries such as US, Canada, Japan, and
South Korea were categorized as First World States. Communist countries, on the other
hand, were categorized as Second World States. While countries that remained non-
aligned with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization nor the Communist Block were
categorized as Third World States. These states are poor and were former colonies of
the West. After the Cold War Era, most of the countries that belong to the First and
Second World categories were classified as part of the Global North while countries
that belong to the Third World category are now part of the Global South. At present
the concepts, “Less Developed Countries” (LDCs) such as the developing,
underdeveloped, and undeveloped countries are also being used to refer to Global
South States. Developing countries are mostly found in South-East Asia;
underdeveloped countries are mostly located in South America; and most of the
undeveloped countries are the poorest in South Africa.

Global North States have the following characteristics: have developed

economies; are attractive to investors; highly industrialized; have low poverty rate; low
birth rates; are technologically advanced; have low infant mortality rate; their public
education and health services are at a high level; have good infrastructure that allows
access to every part of the country; have stable institutions guaranteeing democracy,
the rule of law, human rights, and respect for and protection of minorities; and are
marked with less corruption.

The Global South states on the other hand, are described as having: large
inequalities in living standards; low Gross Domestic Product (GDP); high population;
economies that rely on imports from the Global North States; rural population that
depends on agriculture for subsistence; lack of modern technology; inadequate
transportation; and high infant mortality rate.

The Global South

The Global South refers to countries located in Africa, Latin America, and
developing countries in Asia. These countries fail to adopt the policies on innovation
and industrialization of Global North States. It is evident that many of Global South
States are former colonies of countries which are now part of the Global North. Global
South States are poorer. One factor that can provide an explanation to this is their long
history of economic colonialism. After gaining independence from their colonizers,
these countries became source of raw materials for their former colonizers. This
contributed to their continued dependence on the Global North countries. This is
related to the Dependency Theory which originated in Latin America.

Dependency Theory and the Global South

Theotonio Dos Santos, one of the founders of Dependency Theory, describes

dependence as “a situation in which the economy of certain countries is conditioned
by the development and expansion of another economy to which the former is
subjected” (Dos Santos, 1970; p. 231). If applied to the concepts of Global North and
Global South, the Dependency Theory suggests that industrialized countries exploit
underdeveloped/ developing countries through economic and political neoliberalism

51 | Page
which perpetuate the latter’s pre-industrial or semi-industrial status. Sukarno stated that
“colonialism is not yet dead” (Claudio, 2014). Modern colonialism can arise in the form
of economic control, intellectual control, or actual physical control.

Lenin argued that the strength of capitalism is dependent on the creation of

new markets through imperialism. Colonialism and imperialism set stage for the growth
of capitalism. This idea of Lenin reflects the exploitative interaction between core
(metropole/global north countries) and peripheral economies (satellite/global south
countries) which can also be applied to the concepts of Global North and South.

According to Claudio (2014) the existence of the North and South divide shows
the incompleteness of globalization. It emphasizes that in the process of globalization,
there is uneven development. He has pointed out several causes of this unevenness:

a. International financial institutions (IFIs) like the World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO) saddle
developing economies with debt while making them more vulnerable to global
economic shocks.

b. Forced liberalization and marketization of developing economies through the IFIs

c. Economic norms that the developed world applies to itself are never the same
as those it imposed on the developing world such as demanding the developing
economies to cut down government spending (austerity measures) and raise
interest rates in times of economic crises. These can result to the shrinking of the
public sector which can ultimately cause a reduction in social services like
healthcare.

d. Governments of the North, though having the ability to regulate polluting

companies, do so inadequately in order to protect their country’s economic
interests. The effects of global environmental problems are more felt by Global
South countries than those that belong to the Global North.

e. The effect of the introduction of development has to be seen not only in terms of
social economic impact, but also, in relation to the cultural meaning and
practices they upset or modify (Escobar, 1988).

As a solution to the uneven development that is happening now between the

North and the South, Walden Bello suggests that development in the Global South must
begin by “drawing most of a country’s financial resources for development from within
rather than becoming dependent on foreign investments and foreign financial
markets” (Claudio, 2014).

52 | Page
 Activity 6.A
(Identification Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Identify the concepts being described under each of the following items.
Write your answers on the space provided before each item.

1. This is the term used to refer to the group of

countries that are non-communist and
developed during the Cold War. These countries
aligned themselves with the US.
2. This is the category of countries that chose non-
alignment during the Cold War Era.
3. This term refers to the group of countries that
supported communism during the Cold War.
4. According to Claudio, many countries that
belong to this category prioritize economic gain
over environmental protection.
5. This theory explains that the underdevelopment
in Global South countries can be attributed to
the exploitation committed by industrialized
countries through the principles of economic
and political neoliberalism.
6. It is a conflict over ideological differences and it
does not involve actual fighting.
7. Provide two non-Asian countries which are
geographically located in the South but are
considered part of the Global North.

8.

9. Provide two Asian states that belong to the

Global North.

10.

53 | Page
 Activity 6.B
(Essay Type)

Essay Question: Limit your answer to a maximum of five (5) sentences only.

Explain how the international trade relations between the global north countries
(HDCs - highly developed countries) and the global south countries (LDCs - less
developed countries) might NOT transform the latter to become highly developed or
highly industrialized countries, like the former, in the near future.

54 | Page
55 | Page
Learning Objectives:

1. To differentiate regionalization and globalization

2. To identify the factors that lead to a greater integration of
the Asian region
3. To analyze how different Asian states confront the
challenges of globalization and regionalization

SOURCE: [Link]
[Link]
[Link]

56 | Page
 LESSON 7
ASIAN REGIONALISM

This lesson presents the main ideas of Ehito Kimura on Asian regionalism in his
article entitled, “Globalization and the Asia Pacific and South Asia”. Other authors and
sources were also included to supplement the discussion on regionalism.

Regionalization and Globalization

Regionalization is defined as the way that an area of the world containing

several countries becomes more economically or politically important than the
particular countries within that area. Regionalization also entails “an increase in the
cross-border flow of capital, goods, and people within a specific geographical area or
region” (Hoshiro, n.d.). It is the process of regional formation (Söderbaum, 2011).

A region is composed of a limited number of states that are linked together by

geographical relationship and by a degree of mutual interdependence. The European
Union (EU), African Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the
Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) are examples of results of regionalization.

On the other hand, globalization is defined as the process of international

integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other
aspects.

Thus, to compare, globalization promotes the integration of economies of

countries all around the world while regionalization is considered by some as the
opposite of globalization since it aims to divide a large area into smaller parts. Aside
from this basic difference, Lis and Rzepka (n.d.) pointed out that “the processes of
globalization of the world economy are guided by the requirements of competition
and the searching by the entities of the most favorable forms of business and business
locations. These activities aimed at regionalism, on the other hand, these are dictated
to a large extent by the needs of co-operation not only economic but also political,
social, etc. Regional cooperation between countries aims at moderating the
differences and contradictions between economies and equalizing their opportunities
for their development."

The relationship between regionalization and globalization is explained by many

experts but sometimes with contradicting ideas. Some claim that these two concepts
support each other since some view regionalization as an early stage of globalization.
Some view regionalization as a response to globalization. It is believed that
regionalization was created to provide better adaptation to the processes of
globalization and to reduce the negative impact of globalization on states.
Regionalization can help stimulate local markets that are necessary for responding to
the needs of globalization.

Regionalization in Asia

Asia is now at the forefront of globalization. Yendamuri (2009) claims that Asia’s
GDP will overtake the GDP of the rest of the world combined. In fact, according to the
International Monetary Fund (2019), Asia remains as the fastest-growing region in the
world, accounting for more than two-thirds of the global growth in 2019. This can be
attributed to different factors such as: presence of China in Asia; presence of young
and more educated workforce; abundance of natural resources; and there are several
Asian states which are leaders in innovation which is essential for globalization to work.

In the recent years, steps had been taken in order to strengthen regionalization
in Asia. This includes the creation of trade agreements that promote free-trade among

57 | Page
member-states such as the ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) and the ASEAN
Economic Community (AEC).

Challenges of Globalization and Regionalization in Asia

a. Economic growth has mostly benefited the elite and the middle class. There is a
wide gap between the income of the rich and the poor.

b. Brain drain caused by labor export policies of countries specially for those that
are classified as Third World countries. This phenomenon reduces the capacity of
developing and underdeveloped countries to make use of their human and
natural resources for their own development.

c. Some developing countries became reliant on remittances instead of

strengthening local employment.

d. Negative balance of payments for importing countries and neglect of domestic

production.

e. Massive environmental destruction and massive extraction of resources in the

name of export-oriented extractive industries.

f. Free trade usually favors industrialized countries at the expense of developing

and underdeveloped states.

58 | Page
 Activity 7.A
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Instruction:
In not more than five (5) sentences, answer the question below. Write your
answer on the box provided below the question.

Question:

Is regionalization a part of the globalization process? Support your stand.

59 | Page
 Activity 7.B

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Read the article, “Globalization and the Asia Pacific and South Asia” by Ehito
Kimura. Complete the table below by providing five (5) main arguments/ideas for each
factor presented by the author in his discussion on Asia as being an OBJECT, a SUBJECT,
and an ALTERNATIVE for globalization.

Note: You can access this article through any of the links below:

A. [Link]
PACIFIC-AND-SOUTH-ASIApptx/

B. [Link]
South_Asia

AN OBJECT A SUBJECT AN ALTERNATIVE

1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2.

3. 3. 3.

4. 4. 4.

5. 5. 5.

60 | Page
61 | P a g e
Learning Objectives:

1. To appreciate the types and usages of the various

forms/platforms media

2. To analyze how the various forms of media drive various

forms of global integration

3. To explain the dynamics between local and global cultural

production

SOURCE: [Link]
[Link]
[Link]

62 | P a g e
 LESSON 8
GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

Developments in technology, communication, and transportation have

contributed to the growth of international travel; easier and more accessible
transactions regardless of location; and access to Western culture, beliefs, music, arts,
film, etc. Overall, it has contributed to the tendency towards cultural homogenization
and to global integration. Media, which is defined as a means of conveying something,
such as a channel of communication, can build connections and influence societies
and it can contribute to the strengthening of globalization. Lule (2014) even claimed
that globalization could not occur without media. Developments in media technology
are crucial to globalization. Through media, people can now imagine to be a part of
one world, or what Marshal McLuhan call as the “global village”.

Five Periods in the Development of Media that Contributed to Globalization (Lule, 2014):

1. Oral Communication

Human speech is the oldest and the most enduring communication media.
Speech has been with us for at least 200,000 years. Speech had set humans apart from
every other species and allowed them to conquer the world. Language contributed to
globalization since it enabled humans to cooperate with one another. Coordination
during hunting, planting, and harvesting; sharing information about tools and
techniques; and sharing information about weather were all made possible by human’s
use of language. It allowed the passing knowledge from one generation to the next,
and from one place to another (Lule, 2014).

2. Script

Distance causes trouble for oral communication. Fortunately, script was created
and it allowed humans to communicate and share knowledge and ideas over much
larger spaces and across much longer times. It is believed that writing has developed
from early cave paintings. Ideas and stories about life were communicated by early
humans through cave paintings. “Early writing systems began to appear after 3000 BCE,
with symbols carved into clay tablets to keep account of trade. These cuneiform marks
later developed into symbols that represented the syllables of languages and
eventually led to the creation of alphabets, the scripted letters that represent the
smallest sounds of a language. These alphabets, learned now in pre-schools around the
world, were central to the evolution of humankind and its civilizations” (Lule, 2014).

Early writing surfaces include blocks of wood, bones, stones, and clay. Ancient
Egypt created one of the most popular writing surfaces from a plant found along the
Nile River, the papyrus (from which the English word paper eventually derived). Script
allowed for the written and permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious,
and political practice. These were then spread across borders and generations. Thus,
contributing to globalization.

3. Printing Press

The printing press started the information revolution and transformed markets,
businesses, nations, schools, churches, governments, armies, and more. All histories of
media and globalization acknowledge the consequential role of the printing press.
Reading and writing, too, were practices of the ruling and religious elite. The rich and
powerful controlled information until the printing press was created. With the advent of
the printing press, first made with movable wooden blocks in China and then with
movable metal type by Johannes Gutenberg in Germany, reading materials suddenly
were cheaply made and easily circulated. The explosive flow of economic, cultural,

63 | P a g e
and political ideas around the world connected and changed people and cultures in
ways never before possible (Lule, 2014).

According to Eisenstein (1979), the printing press changed the nature of

knowledge. It preserved and standardized knowledge. Print also encouraged the
challenge of political and religious authority because of its ability to circulate
competing views. It encouraged the literacy of the public and the growth of schools. It
allowed people to learn about the world.

4. Electronic Media

This form of media uses electromagnetic energy (electricity). This includes

telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television. Because of its accessibility, it has
contributed much to the spread of principles of globalization and aided globalization
itself.

In our modern world, the telegraph is not thought of as a revolutionary medium.

But in its time, the telegraph was a sensation with significant consequences. Samuel F. B.
Morse began work on a machine in the 1830s that eventually could send coded
messages (dots and dashes) over electrical lines. The effects were enormous, almost
immediately, rail travel was more efficient and safe since information about arrivals or
delays could be passed down the line ahead of the trains. Corporations and businesses
were able to exchange information about markets and prices. Newspapers could
report information instantaneously. By 1866, a transatlantic cable was laid between the
United States and Europe, and the telegraph became a truly global medium (Carey,
1992: 157).

The ability to transmit speech over distance was the next communication
breakthrough. Though not always considered a mass medium, the telephone surely
contributed to connecting the world. Alexander Graham Bell is credited with inventing
the telephone in 1876. It quickly became a globally adopted medium. By 1927, the first
transatlantic call was made via radio. Radio developed alongside the telegraph and
telephone in the late 1890s. The technology was first conceived as a wireless telegraph.
By the early 1900s, speech indeed was being transmitted without wires.

The creation of the cellular phone in 1973 was especially crucial in the context of
globalization and media. Relatively cheap to produce and buy, and easy to learn and
transport, cellular phones have quickly become the world's most dominant
communication device and penetrated even the world's most remote regions and
villages today.

5. Digital Media

Digital media are most often electronic media that rely on digital codes, the
long arcane combinations of 0s and 1s that represent information. Computers have
revolutionized work in every industry and trade. Some of the largest companies in the
world, such as Microsoft, Apple, Google, Facebook, and more, arose in the digital era
and have been instrumental to globalization.

Global Village

The most significant consequence of media is that people were able to know
more about the world, people have needed to be able to truly imagine the world –and
imagine themselves acting in the world for globalization to proceed. In the past, only a
few privileged people thought of themselves as cosmopolitan (meaning, citizens of the
world). Cosmopolitanism is now a feature of modern life. People imagine themselves as
part of the world (Lule, 2014).

64 | P a g e
 However, the idea of a global village aided by the use of media has shown
implications that have become a source of debate for some.

Media and Economic Globalization

Media has contributed to the growth of economic globalization. It helped in the

creation of the conditions for global capitalism and foundation of the world’s market
economy. Commercials in radio and television, advertisements on the internet, digital
billboards, films and TV shows that showcase ideas of consumption, all made the selling
and buying of products across borders a normal activity.

Some media companies themselves were able to transform into huge

transnational corporations. One implication of this relationship between media and
globalization is the emergence of global media oligopoly that focuses not on spreading
cultural values but on gaining profit. Some even claim that media can sometimes
distract the public from critical thinking, sapping time and energy from social and
political action.

Transnational conglomerates, in this view, are much less interested than local
media outlets in providing news and information necessary for citizens. People are
encouraged to think of products not politics. They are consumers not citizens. The
conglomerates have little incentive to invest in local talk shows, news channels,
documentaries, or other social and political content. The global oligopoly of media thus
helps create a passive apolitical populace that rises from the couch primarily for
consumption (Lule, 2014). The impact is that, around the world, news has become
softer, lighter, and less challenging, with space and time given over to weather, sports,
celebrities, sensation, recipes, and other less weighty fare. One scholar calls the result
the mass production of ignorance (Philo, 2004).

Media and Political Globalization

An essential process of globalization is political. Globalization has transformed

world politics in profound ways. It led to the formation and then the overthrow of
kingdoms and empires. It led to the creation of the nation-state. And now some argue
that the nation-state is being weakened as people and borders become ever more
fluid in our globalized world. Some argue that transnational political actors, from NGOs
(non-governmental organizations) like Greenpeace, to corporations, and to the United
Nations, now rise in prominence in our age of globalization. When we add the media to
the mixture of globalization and politics, we touch upon some key features of modern
life (Lule, 2014).

Media corporations have become powerful political actors. The International

Federation of Journalists (IFJ) estimates that on average close to 100 journalists and
media workers are killed in the line of duty each year. They die in war zones. They die
from car bombs. They die covering earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes. They die in
drug raids. Many though are specifically targeted, hunted down, and murdered
because of their work. More troubling, the journalists die without justice. Mexico, Russia,
and the Philippines top the list of places where journalists are slaughtered with impunity.
Each nation displays the new array of forces now threatening journalists in the global
village. The opposite hypothesis presents that governments shape and manipulate the
news. It is another key feature of media and political globalization. Officials around the
world are extremely successful at influencing and molding the news so that it builds
support for their domestic and foreign policies (Lule, 2014).

65 | P a g e
Media and Cultural Globalization

Media can be primary carriers of culture. Media also generate numerous and
ongoing interactions among cultures. Jan Nederveen Pieterse (2004) argues that there
are three outcomes with which to consider the influence of globalization on culture:

1. Cultural Differentialism

This suggests that cultures are different, strong, and resilient. Distinctive
cultures will endure, this outcome suggests, despite globalization and the global
reach of American or Western cultural forms. It can suggest that cultures are
destined to clash as globalization continually brings them together.

2. Cultural Convergence

This suggests that globalization will bring about a growing sameness of

cultures. A global culture, likely American culture, some fear, will overtake many
local cultures, which will lose their distinctive characteristics. This suggests cultural
imperialism which can ultimately result to a homogenized Westernized culture.

3. Cultural Hybridity

This suggests that globalization will bring about an increasing blending or

mixture of cultures.

Glocalization

As globalization has increased the frequency of contact among cultures, the

world has been given another awkward term glocalization. In this perspective, the
media and globalization are facts of life in local cultures. But local culture is not static
and fixed. Local culture is not pliable and weak, awaiting or fearing contact from the
outside. Local culture is instead created and produced daily, drawing from, adopting,
adapting, and succumbing to, satirizing, rejecting, or otherwise negotiating with the
facts, global and local, of the day. The local is built and understood anew each day in
a globalized world. The global takes local form. For instance Cuban youths excitedly
listened to black popular music from Miami radio and television shows during the 1970s,
later learned of the emerging US rap and hip hop scene, and eventually developed
their own style of Cuban hip hop (Lule, 2014).

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 Activity 8.A
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS.

Items Column A Column B

It is the most enduring form of communication

1. A. Cultural homogenization
through the use of media
2. It means “citizen of the world” B. Cultural differentialism
A form of media that uses electromagnetic
3. C. Speech
energy
This suggests that globalization can result to the
4. blending of different cultures instead of just D. Cosmopolitan
simply homogenizing all cultures
This refers to the creation of one common global
5. E. Papyrus
culture
The creation of local versions of anime from
6. F. Cultural hybridity
Japan is an example of this phenomenon
7. It refers to an imagined global community G. Chinese
This suggests that Islam and the Western culture
8. H. Electronic media
will never work together
This is one of the most popular writing surfaces in
9. I. Glocalization
ancient Egypt
They invented the first printing press with
10. J. Global village
movable wood blocks

67 | P a g e
 Activity 8.B
(Essay Type)

Essay Question: Limit your answer to a maximum of five (5) sentences only.

In what ways do global media serve as guardians of free speech, democracy,

and justice?

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69 | P a g e
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify and explain the effects of globalization on traditional
religious beliefs and practices
2. To understand the relationship between religion, global conflict,
and conversely global peace.
3. To establish and understand the correlation between religion
and globalized social issues

SOURCE: [Link]

70 | P a g e
 LESSON 9
THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

The Origin of Religion

Religion. A set of beliefs and practices that define the relations between human
beings and the sacred or divinity.

Religiosity. A passionate inquiry about the meaning of life, it is the openness we

find in us that directs us to the depth-dimension of life.

Religious Act. An act whereby a man reflects on the transcendental core of his
being.

Four Conceptions (Primitive Religion)

1. Animism. Presupposing a kinship between himself and his world. Animists

regarded the life or soul as confined to the object which it animated whether a tree, a
human body or a river.

2. Spiritism. In dreams, marvelous events and beings would appear. It was quite
natural for men to infer that their souls were not “bound” to their bodies, as animist held,
but were “free” and separable.

3. Totemism. The “totem”, an animal or plant of some kind, was supposed to be

connected in some mysterious ways with the life and well-being of the tribe.

4. Mana. The name for the power or force by virtue of which peculiar effects are
exerted. The peculiar magical property of a stone, or the peculiar force that makes a
hero heroic.

Three Categories in the Belief of Gods

1. Polytheism. A belief in many gods. Polytheistic cultures believed in sacrifices

to appease their gods.

2. Pantheism. A belief that all is god wherein the universe itself was divine.

3. Monotheism - A belief in one god.

71 | P a g e
Table: Major World Religions

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Sociology of Religion: Religious Secularization

The social-scientific study of religion is a field that has played a critically

important role in shaping the contemporary scholarly understanding of globalization.
Unfortunately, this is rarely openly acknowledged. In response, this chapter highlights
this contribution while also presenting an overview of mostly, but not exclusively,
sociological contributions to the religion-globalization problematic.

This historical rift between the study of religion and the social sciences is aptly
reflected in the field's organizational structure. Major scholarly associations such as the
American Academy of Religion (AAR), the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion
(SSSR), and the Association for Sociology of Religion (ASR), have maintained their
institutional autonomy.

For most of the twentieth century, the research agenda of the social sciences
has been dominated by the debate over secularization (Turner, 2009; for an overview of
the field, see Turner 2010b). Social scientists have heatedly debated the scope, nature,
extent and parameters of secularization in an effort to unveil the overall patterns and/or
trajectories of the modern world. Initially, secularization theory had a strong following,
but over time it was superseded by re-evaluations favorable to the sceptics of the
secularization thesis (Berger; The SAGE Handbook of Globalization).

The various criticisms eventually forced a scholarly reappraisal. Accordingly,

Western Europe, once regarded the paradigmatic case of secularization, is viewed as
an exception from global patterns, whereas the United States, once regarded as an
exceptional case, is viewed as more typical of global patterns of religiosity than
previously thought (Davie, 2002; Berger, Davie & Fokas, 2008).

As a result, the terms of the secularization debate have been reframed (Taylor,
2007; for a critical assessment, see Torpey, 2010). The modern world is a secular one, not
because of a mere decline of individual religiosity or a growing church and state
separation; but because frameworks of understanding have shifted radically. Whereas
in the 16th century, western people could scarcely be ignorant of God, that is an option
today. Secularization is understood as a shift in the overall frameworks of human
condition. It makes it possible for people to have a choice between belief and non-
belief in a manner hitherto unknown.

This parochialism has meant that all too often sociologists have abandoned the
study of religion of non-Western societies to scholars from other disciplines
(anthropologists or various regional experts). This tendency remains alive to this day and
is accurately reflected when readers contrast the various handbooks of the sociology
of religion versus compilations of a more cross-disciplinary orientation. In this respect, the
major cleavage that shapes the problematic of the relationship between religion and
globalization is not only between a dominant north and a subordinate south. Of equal
importance is the major cleavage between the “West” and the “East” or the “Rest”
(Turner & Khonder, 2010).

Western social theory has been based on the themes of modernity and
secularity, and thus it has ignored even non-Western branches of Christianity, such as
Eastern Orthodox (and Oriental) Christianity (Hann, 2011). Unsurprisingly, the critique of
Orientalism (Said, 1978) has been of critical importance for shaping the understanding
of the field itself. This has broadened scholarly perspectives and necessitated the
articulation of theories and interpretations that would henceforth explain not just the
phenomenon labelled “religion” in the West; but rather the development of “world
religions” as such (Beyer, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Masuzawa, 2005; Riesebrodt, 2012).

The emergence of world religions in large part corresponds to an extension of

commercial linkages and networks over the Euro-Asian landmass and is related to the

73 | P a g e
political-military projects of several empires (Tehranian, 2007). Based upon this
perspective, Eisenstadt (2002, 2003) argues that several distinct multiple modernities
come into existence; and that Western modernity represents but one of the various
possible ways of entering into the modern world. In a sense, even Western modernity is
not necessarily uniform; in fact, within Europe different historical trajectories exist,
suggesting a multitude of distinct historical trajectories (Spohn, 2003). From within these
lenses, the post-15th Century “Rise of the West” through colonialism and imperialism is
seen as a second historical phase of a process that stretches far into human history.

Transnational Religion and Multiple Glocalizations

Attention is focused on two of the many research agenda of the social-scientific

study of religion. These two research agenda are of particular importance for the
problematic of religion and globalization because they directly engage with the theme
of globalization and attempt to theorize its relationship with expressions of religiosity. The
first of these agenda is located within the emergent interdisciplinary field of
transnational studies. Transnational studies emerged gradually since the 1990s in
connection to the study of post-World War ll. New immigrants or trans-migrants who
moved from Third World and developing countries into developed First World nations
(Levitt & Khagram, 2007). New immigrants no longer assimilated into the cultures of the
host countries but rather openly maintained complex links to their homelands, thereby
constructing, reproducing and preserving their transnational ties. International migration
has provided the means to theorize the relationship between people and religion in a
transnational context (Casanova, 2001; Ebaugh & Chafetz, 2002; Hagan & Ebaugh,
2003; Levitt, 2003, 2004; Van der Veer, 2002).

Peggy Levitt's 2007 book entitled “God Needs No Passport” is perhaps among
the most widely cited examples of this research agenda. Although the book focused
on the United States, the impact of this research agenda extends into the situation of
other advanced industrialized countries such as Canada, Australia and the UK.
Concomitant with the movements of peoples, the migration of faiths across the globe
has been a major feature of the world throughout the twentieth century. One of these
features is the “deterritorialization” of religion (Casanova, 2001; Martin, 2001; Roy, 2004)
That is, the appearance and, in some instances, the efflorescence of religious traditions
in places where these previously had been largely unknown or were at least in a
minority position. Transnational religion emerged through the post-World War II spread
of several religions (The SAGE Handbook of Globalization, 2016).

The most prominent example is the explosion of Protestantism in the hitherto

solidly Catholic Latin America. The extensive and widely publicized debates over the
public presence of Islam in Europe are but the most visible manifestation of this process
(Bjorgo, 1997; Raudvere, Stala & Willert, 2012). As Modood (1997: 2) notes, “Muslims are
now emerging as the critical ‘other’ in various nationalist discourses and in definitions of
Europe in Western Europe, even in Scandinavian countries, where there is hardly any
historical encounter with Muslims”. To the extent that the very label of transnational
religion is a means of describing solutions to new-found situations that people face as a
result of migration, it comes as two quite distinct blends of religious universalism and
local particularism. First, it is possible for religious universalism to gain the upper hand,
whereby religion becomes the central reference for immigrant communities. In such
instances, religious transnationalism is often depicted as a religion “going global”.
Jenkins (2007), for example, has noted the rapid growth of Christianity

in the global south, countering arguments that Islam would overtake Christianity
as the world's most popular faith. In cases in which immigrants share the same
vernacular or are members of a church with a centralized administration (such as the
Catholic Church), the propensity for such a pattern inevitably increases. Migrants
participate in religious multi-ethnic networks that connect them to their co-religionists
locally and globally. Their main allegiance is not to their original homeland but to their

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global religious community. Religion offers a means for “transnational transcendence”
(Csordas, 2009) of identities and boundaries.

Second, it is possible for local ethnic or national particularism to gain or maintain

the most important place for local immigrant communities. In such instances,
transnational communities are constructed and religious hierarchies perform dual
religious and secular functions that ensure the group’s survival (Danforth, 1995;
Roudometof, 2000). The above distinction obviously represents two ends of a continuum
of a variety of combinations observed among transnational or immigrant or diasporic
groups (McLoughlin, 2010). For example, diasporas might adopt cultural habits derived
from the host country. A prominent example is the “Protestantization” of various faiths
among groups living mostly in Europe or the United States. But other groups might shed
cultural elements in favor of a more globalist orientation; as suggested by Roy (2010) in
his “deculturalization of religion” thesis. According to Roy, fundamentalist or more
precisely revivalist movements attempt to construct “pure religion” that sheds the
cultural tradition in which past religious life was immersed.

The Positive Effects of Religion

1. Social Cohesion. To help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and
cultures.
2. Social Control. To enforce religious-based morals and norms to maintain
conformity and control in society.
3. Education. Religious communities typically invest in forming an ethic of such
discipline and persistence.
4. Charity. Religious practice correlates with a higher rate of care and concern
for others.
5. Social Mobility. The role of religion in building relationships and habits of hard
work reinforces a conventional (as opposed to alternate or illegal) orientation to
success and achievement.
6. Crime. Decades of research also indicate that a higher level of religious
involvement is associated with a reduced likelihood of abusing alcohol or drugs.
7. Health. The majority of research revealed that religious commitment and
practice can lead to increased self-esteem and well-being. Religious practice is also
related to greater longevity, and a reduced risk of a number of health complications
like colitis or different forms of cancer.
8. Family relationships. Religious participation tends to foster an authoritative,
warm, active, and expressive style of parenting. Parents who attend religious services
are more likely to enjoy a better relationship with their children and are more likely to be
involved with their children's education.
9. To Provide Meaning and Purpose. This is to answer any existential questions.

Religion and Global Conflict

a. No major religion has been exempt from complicity in violent conflict. Yet we need
to beware of an almost universal propensity to oversimplify the role that religion plays in
international affairs. Religion is not usually the sole or even primary cause of conflict.

b. With so much emphasis on religion as a source of conflict, the role of religion as a

force in peacemaking is usually overlooked.

c. Religious affiliation and conviction often motivates religious communities to

advocate particular peace-related government policies. Religious communities also
directly oppose repression and promote peace and reconciliation.

d. Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations, serve as a

communication link between opposing sides, and provide training in peacemaking

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methodologies. This form of religious peacemaking garners less public attention but is
growing in importance.

e. Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious peacemaking. Rather than seeking to

resolve a particular conflict, it aims to defuse interfaith tensions that may cause future
conflict or derive from previous conflict. Interfaith dialogue is expanding even in places
where interreligious tensions are highest. Not infrequently, the most contentious
interfaith relationships can provide the context for the most meaningful and productive
exchanges.

f. Given religion’s importance as both a source of international conflict and a resource

for peacemaking, it is regrettable that the U.S. government is so ill-equipped to handle
religious issues and relate to religious actors. If the U.S. government is to insert itself into
international conflicts or build deeper and more productive relationships with countries
around the world, it needs to devise a better strategy to effectively and respectfully
engage with the religious realm.

Religion and Terrorism

In recent decades, religion has assumed unusual prominence in international

affairs. A recent article in The Economist asserts that, if there ever was a global drift
towards secularism, it has been halted and probably reversed. In the article, Philip
Jenkins, a noted scholar from Pennsylvania State University, predicts that when
historians look back at this century they will see religion as "the prime animating and
destructive force in human affairs, guiding attitudes to political liberty and obligation,
concepts of nationhood and, of course, conflicts and wars". The article then cites
statistics from a public opinion survey in Nigeria demonstrating that Nigerians believe
religion to be more central to their identity than nationality. Nigerians are thus more
likely to identify themselves first and foremost as Christians or Muslims rather than as
Nigerians. The horrendous events of September 11; the conflagration in Iraq; and the
aggressive assertiveness of quasi-theocratic Iran only confirm in the popular mind that
religion lies behind much of contemporary international conflicts.

This March was the 17th anniversary of the overthrow of Saddam Hussein. In the
following 17 years, Iraq has continued to be wracked by conflict and instability, from
the insurgency to ISIS to today’s anti-government protest movements. Needless to say,
policymakers and analysts have paid much attention to Iraq during the past two
decades. Yet there remains a knowledge gap, with a lack of reliable data on how
everyday Iraqis perceive the possibilities for peace and stability. Understanding how
Iraqis view the possibilities for peace is critical to policymakers, peacebuilding
practitioners, and donor agencies working to bring stability to communities that have
long been held under the grip of violence.

To monitor progress and To address this gap, identified after over a decade of
working on peacebuilding in Iraq, the U.S. Institute of Peace developed the Conflict
and Stabilization Monitoring Framework (CSMF). To be sure, there are already rigorous
qualitative studies that look at Iraqis’ views on governance and the U.S. presence,
among other things. Yet, despite a robust field of research and analysis on Iraq, most
existing scholarships, programming assessments, and media analyses are based on
interactions with government officials, business persons, and the civil society. These are
people who tend to speak Western languages and have higher levels of education
than average Iraqis, so they see the conflict differently than those in the communities
surveyed for the CSMF. What the CSMF adds is a grassroots perspective specifically on
conflict and stabilization dynamics, including governance, security, rule of law, and
livelihoods. Another important component of the CSMF is that it is longitudinal, tracking
the same or similar indicators over time, watch out for negative trends.

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 The data has been collected from residents and internally displaced persons
(IDPs) across Iraq’s Nineveh province, which is home to a microcosm of the country,
with Christians, Yazidis, Shabaks, Turkmen, Sunni and Shia Arabs, Kurds, and others. These
communities have undergone intense disruptions and violence—and even genocide in
some cases—since ISIS’s incursion in 2014. Despite the territorial defeat of ISIS, thousands
remain displaced from towns and villages across the province, unable or unwilling to
return to their homes. The complex interplay of political and security factors in ISIS’s
wake has also contributed to intercommunal tensions between ethnoreligious groups.

Religion and Same Sex Marriage

Buddhism

Due to the ambivalent language about homosexuality in Buddhist teachings,

there has been no official stance put forth regarding the issue of marriage between
members of the same gender. There is no official Buddhist position on the issue of same-
sex marriage.

On October 11, 1995, some religious leaders gave testimony to the Commission
on Sexual Orientation and the Law in support of same-gender marriages. Robert Aitken,
co-founder and teacher of the Honolulu Diamond Sangha, a Zen Buddhist society
established in 1959, with centers in Manoa and Palolo, gave written testimony on the
subject of same-sex marriage. Aitken explains that by applying the Four Noble Abodes
(loving kindness, compassion, joy in the attainment of others, and equanimity) to the
issue of same-sex marriage, he finds compassion for and with the gay or lesbian couple
who wish to confirm their love in a legal marriage. Aitken cites a precept about sex
which Zen Buddhists inherit from earlier classical Buddhists teachings.

It is one of the sixteen precepts accepted by all Zen Buddhist monks, nuns and
seriously committed lay people. He understands this to mean that self-centered sexual
conduct is inappropriate, and he vows to avoid it. He believes that self-centered sex is
exploitive sex, non-consensual sex, sex that harms others. It is unwholesome and
destructive in a heterosexual as well as in a homosexual context. He goes on to explain
that The Legislative Reference Bureau compiled a formidable list of rights that are
extended to married couples in Hawaii, but which are denied to couples who are gays
and lesbians.

He argues that gay and lesbian unions would be "settled even more" if they were
acknowledged with basic married rights. Aitken says, "A long-standing injustice would
be corrected, and the entire gay and lesbian community would feel more accepted.
This would stabilize a significant segment of our society, and we would all of us be
better able to acknowledge our diversity. I urge you to advise the Legislature and the
people of Hawaii that legalizing gay and lesbian marriages will be humane and in
keeping with perennial principles of decency and mutual encouragement."

Christianity

Support and affirmation of marriage rights for same-sex couples generally comes
from certain Christian denominations that are considered theologically liberal. Some
examples of religious organizations voicing their support for same-sex marriage
include Metropolitan Community Church, the United Church of Christ, the United
Church of Canada, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Episcopalian Church
of the United States, the Anglican Church of Canada, the Evangelical Lutheran Church
in America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the Church of Denmark,
the Church of Sweden, the Church of Norway, the Protestant Church in the
Netherlands, the United Protestant Church of France, the United Protestant Church in
Belgium, the Icelandic Church, the Swiss Reformed Church, the Protestant Church in
Hesse and Nassau, the Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck, the

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Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian in Upper Lusatia, the Evangelical
Church in the Rhineland, the Protestant Church in Baden, the Evangelical Lutheran
Church in Northern Germany, the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Hanover, the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg, the Evangelical Church of the Palatinate,
the Church of Lippe, the Evangelical Church of Westphalia, the Presbyterian Church
(U.S.A.), the Quakers, the Liberal Old Catholic Church and the Unitarian Universalists
Church which support the rights of gays and lesbians to marry both in the church and
through the state. There are also progressive congregations and organizations within
mainline Christian denominations, that have not yet officially voiced official support for
same-sex marriage, but have spoken out themselves in support of same-sex marriage
rights in the church and through the state.

Some biblical scholars who hold to a more theologically liberal Christian view of
same-sex marriage, such as representatives of the Metropolitan Community Church,
make the claim that the word "homosexual" as found in many modern versions of the
Bible is an interpolation and is not found in the original biblical texts. This argument from
scripture holds that since the original authors of the Bible never mention “homosexuals”
or committed Christian homosexual couples, there cannot exist a biblical prohibition of
marriage rights for them. According to the MCC, biblical texts interpreted by some as
references to homosexuality refer only to specific sex acts and idolatrous worship which
lack relevance to contemporary same-sex relationships. Christians who support religious
and legal recognition of same-sex marriage may base their belief in same-sex marriage
on the view that marriage, as an institution, and the structure of the family is a biblical
moral imperative that should be honored by all couples, heterosexual and homosexual
alike. Supporting same-sex marriage reflects their Christ-like commitment to the equality
and dignity of all people. According to a theologian from the United Church of
Canada, "human sexual orientations, whether heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual,
are a gift from God".

Some same-sex married couples have challenged religious organizations that

exclude them from access to public facilities maintained by those organizations, such
as schools, health care centers, social service agencies, summer camps, homeless
shelters, nursing homes, orphanages, retreat houses, community centers, and athletic
programs. Opponents of same-sex marriages have expressed concerns that this limits
their religious freedoms. For example, conservatives worry that a Christian college
would risk its tax-exempt status by refusing to admit a legally married gay couple to
married-student housing. Some legal analysts suggest that failure to reflect gay rights
within their organizations may cost some religious groups their tax-exempt status.

Religious arguments for and against marriage rights for same-sex couples are not
always evenly divided among theologically conservative religious groups and liberal
groups. While self-identified theological liberal organizations such as the Religious
Society of Friends (Quakers), support same-sex marriage, other more conservative
and/or orthodox organizations including some Mennonite churches, the Church of the
Brethren, the Old Catholic Church, and the Church of Sweden also support marriage
rights for gay and lesbian persons.

Episcopal Church of the United States

The Episcopal Church (as of 2015: 7,115 open parishes and missions; 2,009,084
active baptized members) at their 2009 General Convention declared that: "bishops,
particularly those in dioceses within civil jurisdictions where same-gender marriage, civil
unions, or domestic partnerships are legal, may provide generous pastoral response to
meet the needs of members of this Church." On July 9, 2012, the Episcopalian Church
passed a resolution that was to be voted on later to approve an official liturgy for
blessing same-sex unions. This liturgy, called "The Witnessing and Blessing of a Lifelong
Covenant," would enable priests to bestow the church's blessing on same-sex couples;
priests could refuse to perform marriages, and bishops could prohibit same-sex

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marriage in their diocese. Denial would come without penalty, but the priest or diocese
would have to direct same-sex couples they decline to another church or priest willing
to perform the ceremony. The resolution was confirmed on July 9, 2015 (three years
later) on a 129 for and 26 against (with 5 abstaining) vote.

Metropolitan Community Church

The Metropolitan Community Church (43,000 members) sees its mission being
social as well as spiritual by standing up for the rights of minorities, particularly those of
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. MCC has been a leading force in the
development of Queer theology. As such, the MCC is notable for publicly supporting
same-sex marriage as early as the 1960s. Notably in 1970 Troy Perry, the church's
founder, filed the first lawsuit in the U.S. seeking legal recognition for same-sex
marriages. Perry lost that lawsuit but launched the debate over same-sex marriage in
the U.S. Today, MCC congregations around the world perform more than 6000 same-
sex marriage ceremonies annually.

Presbyterian Church of USA

The Presbyterian Church of USA’s General Assembly Permanent Judicial

Commission ruled in 2006 that same-sex ceremonies are not forbidden, as long as they
are not considered to be the same as marriage services. Debate on the issue within the
church evolved over the years. In 2000, the General Assembly had approved language
for the church constitution that stated church teachings were that people were "to live
either in fidelity within the covenant of marriage between a man and a woman or in
chastity in singleness," and barred church officers and property from being used for
blessing or approval upon any other form of fidelity relationship, but ratification for this
language was never obtained by the presbyteries. By 2014, the General Assembly
passed an Authoritative Interpretation permitting pastors to sign marriage licenses for
same-gender couples where permitted by civil law in the states where their church was
found, which took immediate effect.

On March 17, 2015, ratification by a majority of presbyteries was reached on a

constitutional amendment passed by that same 2014 General Assembly, which
broadened the definition of marriage in the Directory for Worship from only being
between "a man and a woman," to "two people, traditionally a man and a woman,"
thus giving official sanction to, while not making it mandatory for, any congregation's
pastor to preside over and bless marriage ceremonies for same-gender couples.

United Church of Christ

The United Church of Christ's General Synod (998,906 members) passed a

resolution affirming "equal marriage rights for all people regardless of gender" in 2005.
The church allows but does not require pastors to perform same-sex weddings.

United Church of Canada

The United Church of Canada (600,000 members) was active in the campaign
that led to legal recognition of same-sex marriages in Canada. The United Church now
allows individual congregations to decide whether or not to perform these marriages.
Likewise, in the Protestant Church of the Netherlands, where same-sex marriages have
been legal since 2001, individual congregations decide if they will perform them.

Some Christians support religious and legal recognition of same-sex marriages

based on a moral commitment to equality, or a belief that "human sexual orientations,
whether heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual, are a gift from God", as affirmed by the
United Church of Canada's 37th General Council.

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Liberal Catholic Theologians

Even within the Roman Catholic Church, there can be found a few groups which
supports same-sex marriage. For example, while the Vatican and most of the Roman
Catholic hierarchy oppose same sex marriages, there are a few Catholic theologians
who support gay marriages.

Critical Biblical Scholarship

According to Daniel A. Helminiak, the Bible may be interpreted literally or within

historical-cultural context. Under a literalist reading, the Bible can be read as
condemning homosexuality (and, by extension, gay marriage). Read in cultural
context, the Bible "was not addressing our current questions about sexual ethics and
does not condemn gay sex (or gay marriages) as we understand it today." Helminiak
argues that Biblical passages said to be against homosexuality (and same-sex
marriages) do not actually say anything against gay and lesbian sexual relationships or
identity. "The sin of Sodom was inhospitality, not homosexuality. Jude condemns sex
with angels, not sex between two men. Not a single Bible text indisputably refers to
lesbian sex. There follows no valid conclusion whatsoever about homosexuality. Biblical
figures may well have been involved in homogenital relationships, seen as part of God's
plan”.

Jesus himself said nothing at all about homosexuality, not even when face to
face with a man in a gay relationship. It has been argued that the Bible was written for
a world unlike our own, and that Monogamy, for example, only became the norm in
the Christian world in the last 150 years or so. Lisa Miller also argues for a move beyond
literalism. However, Miller argues that the Bible supports the idea of monogamous
relationships, including gay marriage. Robin Kar argues that same-sex marriage is partly
the result of certain religious and spiritual developments within Judeo-Christian society,
which led to love-based marriages in the West. Hence, there are now religious reasons
for Christians to support "transformative" marriage for all people and to dispense with
the assumption that same-sex marriage reflects encroaching secularism.

Unitarian Universalists and Unitarians

At the 1996 United States Unitarian Universalist General Assembly, delegates

voted overwhelmingly that they would perform same-sex marriage ceremonies, and
the church has been performing weddings with and without state sanction ever since.
Likewise Canadian Unitarian Universalist congregations perform same-sex marriages
and the Canadian Unitarian Council their national organization supports this work
through its Lay Chaplaincy program. Also the British Unitarian church is at the forefront
of the campaign for same-sex marriage.

Hindus

There are both conservative and liberal views about homosexuality and same-
sex marriages in Hinduism, similar to many other religions. A liberal view is presented by
Mathematician Shakuntala Devi, in her 1977 book, The World of Homosexuals, in which
she interviewed Srinivasa Raghavachariar, head priest of the Srirangam temple. He said
that same-sex lovers must have been cross-sex lovers in a former life. The sex may
change but the soul retains its attachments, hence the love impels these souls towards
one another. In 2002, the academic Ruth Vanita interviewed a Shaiva priest who
performed the marriage of two women; having studied Hindu scriptures, he had
concluded, "Marriage is a union of spirits, and the spirit is not male or female" (p. 147).

As Amara Das Wilhelm, a Krishna devotee and founder of GALVA, notes in his
book, Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex, "several Gaudiya Vaishnava authorities
emphasize that since everyone passes through various forms, genders and species in a

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series of lives, we should not judge each other by the material body but view everyone
equally on a spiritual plane, and be compassionate as God is."

According to Ruth Vanita, "Indian newspapers, over the last 25 years, have
reported several same-sex weddings and same-sex joint suicides, mostly by Hindu
female couples in small towns, unconnected to any gay movement. Several weddings
took place by Hindu rites, with some family support, while the suicides resulted from
families forcibly separating lovers." According to Vanita, the phenomena of increased
visibility of same-sex weddings "... suggest the wide range of Hindu attitudes to
homosexuality today. The millennia-long debate in Hindu society, somewhat
suppressed in the colonial period, has revived. In 2004, Hinduism Today reporter Rajiv
Malik asked several Hindu swamis (teachers) their opinion of same-sex marriage. The
swamis expressed a range of opinions, positive and negative. They felt free to differ with
each other; this is evident in the liveliness of the debate, made possible by the fact that
Hinduism has no one in hierarchy or a leader. As Mahant Ram Puri remarked, "We do
not have a rule book in Hinduism. We have a hundred million authorities.”

Islam

In Albania, Tunisia, and Turkey, there have been discussions about legalizing
same-sex marriage. but without success (one reason was that the huge majority of the
people in those countries and also almost all political parties are against same sex
marriage.

In France there was an Islamic same-sex marriage on February 18, 2012. In Paris in
November 2012 a room in a Buddhist prayer hall was used by gay Muslims and called a
"gay-friendly mosque", and a French Islamic website is supporting religious same-sex
marriage.

A majority of American Muslims (51 percent) support same-sex marriage as of

2017, according to a survey by the Public Religion Research Institute in their "2017
American Values Atlas". The first American Muslim in the United States Congress, Keith
Ellison (D-MN) said in 2010 that all discrimination against LGBT people is wrong. He
further expressed support for gay marriage stating "I believe that the right to marry
someone who you please is so fundamental it should not be subject to popular
approval any more than we should vote on whether blacks should be allowed to sit in
the front of the bus."

Judaism

Members of Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism support marriages for

same-sex couples. The Jewish Reconstructionist Federation leaves the choice to
individual rabbis.

Native American Religion

Native American religions traditionally accepted same-sex marriage. This often

came in the form of a Two-Spirit identity in which the Indigenous peoples of the
Americas would fulfill one of many mixed gender roles.

Neo-Paganism

Neo-pagans are generally welcoming of LGBT people, and some strands

celebrate gay relationships. Support is highest in Neo-Druidism, Wicca and Asatru. Some
Wiccan groups perform hand-fastings and betrothals.

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Views Regarding Church-State Separation

Many supporters of same sex marriages argue that, by defining the institution of
marriage as between one man and one woman, the state automatically tramples
upon the constitutional rights to freedom of religion. They argue that just because a
majority of religious organizations may believe that gay marriages should not be
granted by the state does not make it the state's obligation to observe their opinions on
this matter.

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which is part of the United
States Bill of Rights, expressly forbids laws being made "respecting an establishment of
religion" and that prohibit the free exercise of religion. Thus, according to this argument,
the state has no authority to define marriage as between one man and woman
because there are various religions which hold that gay marriage is morally equivalent
to heterosexual marriage.

Americans United for Separation of Church and State prominently expresses

concern that heterosexual-only marriage laws impose a specific religious doctrine as
state policy. According to them, "a marriage amendment in the Constitution [raises]
important church-state and religious liberty concerns."

Religious Opposition

The vast majority of Christian groups have been vocal and politically active in
opposing same-sex marriage laws in the United States. Same-sex marriage opponents
sometimes claim that extending marriage rights to same-sex couples could undercut
the conventional purpose of marriage. Roman Catholic advocates of monogamous
heterosexual marriages contend that same-sex relationships cannot be considered
marriages because marriage, by definition, necessarily involves the uniting of two
members of the opposite sex. Other religious arguments for an opposite-sex definition of
marriage hold that same-sex relationships should not be recognized as marriages
because same-gender sexual activity is contrary to God's will, is immoral, and subverts
God's creative intent for human sexuality. Christian opposition to same-sex marriage
also comes from the belief that same sex marriage normalizes homosexual behavior
and would encourage it, instead of encouraging resistance to same-sex attraction.

Christianity

Christian denominations and groups that have been vocal and or active in their
opposition to same-sex marriages include the following:

Assemblies of God (66.4 million members), Church of God in Christ (over 8 million
members), the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference, the Conservative
Mennonite Conference, the Convocation of Anglicans in North America, the Hutterite
Brethren, the Brethren in Christ, the Mennonite Church of USA, the Catholic Church (1.2
Billion members), the Russian Orthodox Church (150 million members), the Seventh-day
Adventist Church (17 million members), the Southern Baptist Convention (15.7 million
members), and the United Pentecostal Church International (2 million members). In
2009, a group of Christian leaders from various denominations issued the Manhattan
Declaration, an "influential statement that united evangelicals and Catholic leaders in
fighting abortion and gay marriage"; as of November 2010, the Declaration had been
signed by over 475,000 individuals. On August 29, 2017, the Council on Biblical
Manhood and Womanhood released a manifesto on human sexuality known as the
"Nashville Statement". The statement was signed by 150 evangelical leaders, and
includes 14 points of belief. Among other things, it states, "We deny that God has
designed marriage to be a homosexual, polygamous, or polyamorous relationship."

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Catholic Church Opposition

The Catholic Church argues from a theological perspective against recognizing

same-sex unions. According to Catholic moral doctrine, acts of sexual intimacy are only
proper between a man and a woman within wedlock. Secular government recognition
of any other union within the definition of "marriage" would therefore reflect a belief in
the moral equivalence of acts between a husband and wife and acts between two
men or two women; this belief is contrary to Catholic doctrinal teaching.

Catholic opponents also argue that inclusion of same-sex unions within the
definition of marriage would also evidence rejection of the idea that, in general, it is
best that children be raised by their biological mother and father, and that it is the
community's interest in ensuring the well-being of children is the sole basis for the
government's licensee and involvement in marriage.

Pope John Paul II, then head of the Roman Catholic church, criticized same-sex
marriage when it was introduced in the Netherlands in 2001. His successor Pope
Benedict XVI maintained opposition to the institution, considering it amongst "the most
insidious and dangerous threats to the common good today".

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

The Greek Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox and Russian Orthodox Churches, and the
rest of the Orthodox Churches all share the same view. They all view same-sex marriage
as a sin. They do not accept/support homosexual relationships or marriages, and
believe it as immoral and inappropriate. This statement from the Greek Orthodox
Archdiocese of America further explains: "The position of the Orthodox Church toward
homosexual acts has been expressed by synodical, canons and patristic
pronouncements from the very first centuries of Orthodox ecclesiastical life. In them, the
Orthodox Church condemns unreservedly all expressions of personal sexual experience
which prove contrary to the definite and unalterable function ascribed to sex by God's
ordinance and expressed in man's experience as a law of nature. The Orthodox Church
believes that homosexual behavior is a sin."

Views in Scripture

Within the Christian tradition, religious objections to same-sex marriages are often
based upon the Bible. Some religious arguments against same-sex marriage are based
upon Old Testament biblical passages such as Genesis 19:4-11, Leviticus 18:22,and
Leviticus 20:13, while others are based upon New Testament biblical passages such as
Romans 1, I Corinthians 6:8-10, and Jude 1:7.

Conservative Christians note that the book of Leviticus contains a prohibition

against male-male sexuality. While the Biblical passages mentioned above do not
define the institution of marriage, Genesis 2:22-24 reads as follows: "Then the Lord God
made a woman from the rib he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the
man. The man said, 'This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be
called 'woman,' for she was taken out of man.' For this reason a man will leave his father
and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh.” This passage is
quoted by Jesus in the New Testament Gospel of Matthew.

Evangelical Opposition

According to Reverend Rick Warren, a pastor of the conservative Evangelical

Christian Saddleback megachurch, homosexuals are people who "think they are
smarter than God" and who choose "to disobey God's sexual instructions." From
Warren's point of view, marriage is an ordinance from God that unites a man and a

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woman. James Dobson, in Marriage Under Fire and elsewhere, argues that legalization
for or passive tolerance of same-sex marriages would widen the definition of families.

The ex-gay movement takes the view that I Corinthians 6:9-11 offers Christian
believers freedom from the sin of homosexual behavior. Evangelical author and
counselor Joe Dallas notes that the Biblical passages relating to homosexual behavior
uniformly prohibit that behavior.

Other Churches

The Orthodox Church in America is also opposed to same-sex marriage, as is

the Unification Church.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (15 million members) believes that
marriage between a man and a woman is ordained by God and that children are
entitled to be raised by a mother and a father who honor their marital vows with
complete fidelity. They believe marriage is not primarily a contract between individuals
to ratify their affections and provide for mutual obligations, but is an important part of
rearing children. They teach that same-sex marriage undermines the purpose of
marriage.

Jehovah's Witnesses (8.2 million members) believes God condemns sexual

activity that is not between a husband and his wife. They teach that while the bible
condemns homosexual acts, it does not condone hatred of homosexuals or
homophobia.

The United Methodist Church does not permit same-sex marriage or the
ordination of LGBT people. On February 26, 2019, conference delegates voted against
a proposal (449-374) that would have begun allowing churches to set their own LGBT
policies at a local level. Instead, the previous day, a majority of delegates indicated
that they would support a stricter approach to the existing policies, including
encouraging dissenters to leave the church.

Orthodox Judaism

Judaism, like Christianity, reflects differing views between conservative and

liberal adherents. Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional Jewish bans on both
sexual acts and marriage amongst members of the same sex. The Orthodox Union in
the United States supported a federal Constitutional amendment banning same-sex
marriages. However, it is important to note that recent research by Chana Etengoff &
Colette Daiute suggest that positive reconciliations between sexual minority individuals
and Orthodox Jewish family members is possible (a process referred to as theistic
mediation), both with and without clinical support.

Theravada Buddhists

Thai Theravada Buddhists (over 150 million members), being the more
conservative wing of Buddhism are less supportive of gay rights and marriages. Human
rights issues have received poor attention in Theravada countries, as the culture is
rooted in the belief in the Law of Karma, which is more popular among Thai Buddhists
than philosophical and advanced scriptural studies in Buddhism. Many monasteries and
monks advocate their lay followers to see the world through the lens of karma (i.e.,
every person is born to pay back their sins). According to their explanations, all
homosexuals and sexual deviants were once offenders of the Third Precept (prohibiting
sexual misconduct), at least in their past lives, and they must pay off their past sins in
their present life. Therefore, they deserve all that society gives to them. This belief system
creates strong conservative values in Theravada Buddhist culture. For these reasons, it is
unlikely that Buddhists will easily approve a law to allow gay marriage. Gay and lesbian

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activists in Thailand will probably not be as successful as their fellows in European
countries or Canada. It is important to note, however, that Theravada Buddhists outside
of the South-East Asian Area, are generally more supportive, or neutral, to same-sex
marriage, and LGBT rights as a whole.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 9.A
(Objective Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

I. Identification: Give what is asked. Write the answer on the space before each
number.

_____________ 1. This refers to a fundamental set of beliefs and practices generally

agreed upon by a group of people.
_____________ 2. It is a religion with various Gods and Goddesses.
_____________ 3. They are Hindu sacred texts containing a collection of hymns and
prayers.
_____________ 4. This religion is the source of conflict between the Jews and the
Israelites.
_____________ 5. The founder of this religion is Sidharta Gautama.
_____________ 6. It means the enlightened one.
_____________ 7. The practicioners of this religion worship Lao Tzu.
_____________ 8. This is a whole body of religious, ethical, and political doctrines
gathered from antiquity.
_____________ 9. This is the native religion of Japan worshipping the Kami.
_____________ 10. It means to resign, submit or surrender oneself to God.

II. True or False: Write A if the statement is correct and B if incorrect.

_____ 1. “Atman” means in Hinduism the anointed one.

_____ 2. Religionists are people who try to convert and win followers through religious
teachings.
_____ 3. The founder of Confucianism is Kongzi.
_____ 4. Hinduism believes that individual souls are mortal.
_____ 5. Animism believes that humans have mystical relationship with a spirit-being.
_____ 6. Spiritism shows the relationship of man with animate objects.
_____ 7. The social-scientific study of religion is important in understanding globalization.
_____ 8. No major religion has been exempt from global conflict.
_____ 9. Inter-faith dialogue is discovered because it does not recognise freedom of
Religion.
_____ 10. Developed countries are equipped with knowledge and skills in handling
religious issues.

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 Activity 9.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

1. Make a reaction paper on the issue of same sex marriage. Your paper must be
based on the views and arguments of the different religions. In the end, make a
conclusion on whether or not same sex marriage should be recognized in this
globalized environment. Limit your answer to 10 sentences only.

2. Watch the link given below and make a synthesis on the war against terrorism. Is
the war agains the ISIS a religious persecution?

[Link]

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Learning Objectives:

1. To provide a deeper understanding of the concepts,

attributes and characteristics of global cities
2. To appreciate the role of global cities as an engine of
globalization
3. To provide a deeper analysis on cosmopolitanism and the
challenges that the globalized environment pose to the
present and future generations

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 10
THE GLOBAL CITY

Global City

A global city is an urban city that enjoys significant competitive advantages and
that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. A global city or world city
are concepts which postulate that globalization can be broken down in terms of
strategic geographic locales that see global processes being created, facilitated and
enacted whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on
global affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of
culture, or politics.

Characteristics of a Global City

The notion of “global city" has a central place in understanding contemporary

spatial patterns of globalization. The ways it impacts on local life is nowhere more visible
than in the global city. The global city is therefore the main physical and geographic
playground of the globalizing forces. In this space of population concentration and
mixing, the global flows of people, capital and ideas are woven into the daily lived
experiences of its residents. Cultural diversity, a key marker of the global city and a
consequence of human mobility and migration, is usually detected on the surface as a
“cosmopolitan feel". The global city's “natives” encountering and engaging daily with a
variety of immigrants and visitors. The result is “cosmopolitan” consumption,
“cosmopolitan” work culture, global networking and “glocal" transnational community
relations. Global city represents and in many ways contains the world in a bounded
space. This means that many global problems, contradictions, hostilities and inequalities
also find expression amidst the teeming verve of the global city.

Cosmopolitanism is a phenomenon most readily associated with the global city:

large and diverse cities attract people; material and cultural products from all over the
world. The idea of cosmopolitanism usually invokes pleasant images of travel,
exploration and “worldly" pursuits enjoyed by those who have benefited from
globalization and who can, in some ways, consider themselves “citizens of the world". In
the capitalist context, such cosmopolitanism often focuses on consumption in global
cities, where everyday life is significantly shaped by commercial culture, retail and
shopping (Zukin, 1998). Ceaselessly on offer is a cross-cultural variety of food, fashion,
entertainment and various other consumables and artefacts. The promise and allure of
cosmopolitan consumption is familiar to the dweller of any large twenty-first century
city. To start from the most visceral type of consumption, the availability of food from
diverse culinary traditions is taken for granted: a feature of the global city that can be
seen, smelt and tasted, and is always the first to feature in tourist brochures. The global
city also provides a cosmopolitan variety of cultural products, in order to attract and
satisfy those with cross-cultural curiosity keen to engage with "otherness", as well as
immigrants who fight their feeling of displacement by engaging with their “original
cultures" through movies, music and other events, in the company of their compatriots.

In order to be able to imagine, observe and define global city, one first needs to
be able to imagine the world, the globe, as one entity. This is not difficult today, with all
its graphic, visual and conceptual representations, and with a constant debate on
“global issues” in the realm of economics, security and the environment. Yet, arguing
why and how the human globe, the global society, is one, or should be one, remains
difficult. Since the 1980s, when the globalization paradigm started to dominate social
sciences, it has produced ongoing conceptual and ideological disputes. Conceptually,
the meaning and timing of globalization have been debated; ideologically, the
apologists and critics of globalization keep arguing about who benefits from the
intensification of the interconnectedness of economic, political, cultural and

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environmental processes and transformations of the late twentieth and early twenty-first
centuries (Bauman, 1998; Beck, 2000; Hobsbawm et al., 1999; Wallerstein, 1989).

During this time, there have been attempts to shun the traditional approach of
social sciences as an obsolete “methodological nationalism" dictating a (nation-state)
“container model" of society, unfit for the “global age” where trans-nationalism, porous
borders and global interdependency were said to condition all social processes and
prompt social change (Faist, 2000; Wimmer & Glick-Schiller, 2003). While the nation-
state, no doubt remains a powerful institution shaping not only global macro-processes
but also everyday lives of its citizens, its power is increasingly relative and steered by
global forces, primarily economic in nature, but also geo-political, cultural and
environmental. Like many other phenomena of the “global era", the global city also
escapes the full control of the nation state — although each global city is also a
national city, its significance as a trans-national and “cosmopolitan” hub goes beyond
its “host nation". In fact, through global cities the nation-states project their significance
onto the global stage.

What, therefore, is the “global city”? This question may be easier to approach
from an empirical angle: we can ask which cities are "global", and why? In her seminal
work on the topic, Saskia Sassen (1991) identified only three global cities: New York,
London and Tokyo. This choice indicated that the criteria for the status of the global city
were, unsurprisingly, primarily economic: global cities, according to Sassen, are the
“command centers”, the main nodes of triumphant global capitalism (even more
triumphant and global after the fall of its only real-life competitor, communism, at that
time). Sassen (1991: 5) argued that “the more globalized the economy becomes, the
higher the agglomeration of central functions in a relatively few sites, that is, the global
cities.” Twenty years later the three cities are still the main financial centers, and their
respective stock exchanges and indices: New York's Wall Street, London's “Footsie” (the
informal name for FTSE 100 Index of the largest listed companies) and Tokyo's Nikkei, are
concepts familiar even to those with no interest in global finance. Sharon Zukin (1998:
826), taking a “cultural view" of the issue, put New York, London and Paris at the top of
the “urban cultural hierarchy" in terms of cultural innovation and ability to attract
visitors.

Major Characteristics of a Global City

1. International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognized without the need

for a political subdivision.
2. Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs.
3. A fairly large population.
4. A major international airport.
5. An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large
mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation.
6. In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a
Chinatown). In other parts of the world, cities which attract large foreign businesses
and related expatriate communities.
7. International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially
conglomerates), and stock exchanges that have influence over the world
economy.
8. An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national
corporations rely.
9. World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.
10. A lively cultural scene, including film festivals, premieres, a thriving music or
theatre scene, an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street
performers.
11. Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach.
12. A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in
major league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international

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 sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam
tennis events.

Challenges of Global Cities

The global cities that attract large population intakes have high real-estate
prices and as a consequence of population growth suffer falling housing affordability.
This is especially noticeable in Australia over the past decade of very high immigration
intakes (Wood, 2004). Zhong, Clark and Sassen (2007) used census data for all US metro
areas to support their argument that income polarization is mostly present in large
gateway cities, where large immigration intakes tend to depress wages at the bottom
of the labor market. This section of the large urban labor markets now comprises the
most flexible labor, those who hold casual and insecure jobs, often in the grey
economy. Of course, the polarization argument should be applied with caution, as
every city, however "global", has its local, national and regional contexts that color and
condition economic and social processes driven primarily, but not solely, by economic
globalization (Baum, 1999). In Singapore and Shanghai for example, the processes of
globalization are far less laissez-faire than in the “Western” cities and are in fact tightly
managed by the state (Baum, 1999; Wu, 2000). Singapore's dual industrial strategy,
where “up-market" manufacturing is kept alongside burgeoning professional services,
lessened the workforce polarization effect (Baum, 1999). In the twenty-first century, the
list of global cities expanded to encompass cities across Asia, and few cities in other
parts of the world.

According to Japanese Mori Foundation's Global Power City Index, the global
power of cities is measured by a combination of six criteria: economy, research and
development, cultural interaction, livability, environment, and accessibility (Mori
Memorial Foundation, 2011: 1). The top five cities according to these criteria are New
York, London, Paris, Tokyo and Singapore. Of course, there are different rankings and
criteria and this one cannot be considered definitive. Ultimately, according to the Mori
Foundation, cities deserve their global status through their “magnetism": a
comprehensive power to attract creative people and excellent companies from
around the world amidst accelerated inter-urban competition” (2011: 1). The main
thesis of a recent book by Italian-American economist Enrico Moretti (2012) is in
agreement with such a view: he argues that the most important 21st century cities are
those which represent “brain hubs”, that is, concentrations of innovative people and
firms, and are also good “human ecosystems” for cutting-edge businesses, providing all
the support functions or “secondary services" for the innovators (Moretti, 2012: 133, 247;
Solimano, 2006).

Moretti (2012) argues, alongside many other economists, that the continuation of
the success of Western economies nowadays hinges on the “knowledge economy”:
the creation of new ideas, technologies and products (2012: 5, 40-1). A noveler aspect
of his argument is that even more than traditional industries, the “knowledge economy”
has an inherent tendency towards geographical agglomeration. This goes against the
widely accepted view that Internet communication makes the place of work irrelevant.
According to economist Moretti (2012: 5, 144) as well as sociologist Florida (2005: 29) the
geographic “economies of scale” remain relevant, because larger “brain
concentrations“ have a “thicker labor market", a high supply of professionals and a
high demand for them, with a possibility to fast recruit, which is critical in the “time-
driven and horizontal" knowledge economy , and a more specialized supply of business
services, as well as more opportunities for what they call “knowledge spillovers“. The
latter means, in a nutshell, that creative people thrive in the company of other creative
people and tend to stagnate in isolation, even if Internet-connected.

The role of cities as critical concentrations of people and hubs of exchange of

products and ideas is not new: they have been the engine of civilization since the
beginning of history.

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Major Challenges of Global Cities

1. Have more interconnectedness with other cities and across a transnational field of
action than with the national economy.
2. Many of the same characteristics because of their connectedness and shared
experiences of globalization. They all exhibit clear signs of deindustrialization.
3. They possess the concentration of financial and service industries within their spatial
boundaries, as well as the concentration of large pools of labor.
4. Many also share experiences of class and ethnic conflict.
5. They often have segmented labor markets in which employees of key industries enjoy
well-paid and consumerist lifestyles while a lower stratum of workers or staffs are less
well-paid, more precarious, and less attractive positions within the urban economy.
6. Promotion of global cities runs the risk of economically marginalizing non-urban
populations within the national economy.
7. They caused numerous congestions in transports and life in metropolis is also
expensive.
8. Pollution of the air, particularly in the center of these cities.

Global Cities, Social Change, and Liquid Life

Outside the advertising discourse of tourist brochures and the upbeat rhetoric of
local politicians, the super-diverse global cities are places that harbor many
contradictions. On the one hand, they are places where the forces of capitalist neo-
liberal globalization have their stronghold, but on the other hand they are crucibles of
social change where existing political, social and ideological categories and
relationships are being constantly challenged and transformed by alternative lifestyles,
ideas and movements. Wherever one stands in the structure vs. agency debate, it is
clear that people and their local communities are not mere puppets of the powerful
global economic and political forces. While globalization endangers the livelihoods of
individuals, groups and even nations, it also offers many opportunities, and these are
concentrated in global cities. People therefore flock to these nodes of global economy
and society looking for business and work opportunities, excitement, adventure,
change, creative pursuits, education and various “cosmopolitan” experiences.

Yet, not everyone finds luck, success and fulfilment in global cities. Apparently,
and in spite of victorious discourse of its apologists, the hyper-competitive capitalist
globalization inevitably creates winners and losers. Some people have more agency
than others, and more power to withstand structural forces pushing them in a certain
direction due to their gender, ethnicity, socio-economic background, education, age
group, and other “determinants”. Some others will inevitably end up in sweatshops or
even worse, as trafficked sex workers; some recent arrivals and uninitiated visitors will
end up as crime statistics; some tourists will get robbed; a majority of small business
hopefuls will go bankrupt; some immigrants will languish unemployed, underemployed
or not establishing themselves in the new place the way they had hoped for; some of
their children will end up in youth gangs, or as drug addicts, or homeless. The face that
the global city first shows to visitors and settlers is usually the dazzling face of affluence,
historic glory and “culture”, but some of them will inevitably experience the dark side of
the global city.

In order to understand the social dynamics of the global city, it is important to

keep in mind the “regular” categories of winners and losers in the competitive capitalist
system, rather than its accidental victims. According to many authors, the winners in the
global city are those who take it on with considerable financial or human capital:
money or knowledge. Social capital, a network of useful connections, is also very
helpful. Many have argued that the distance between winners and losers seems to be
increasing socially, but also geographically and residentially. In terms of global cities,
they themselves win and lose, wax and wane.

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 Paraphrasing Bauman's (2005: 1) argument, it can be said that the winners of
capitalist globalization are those individuals, communities, cities and nations that can
cultivate the ultimate virtue of flexibility in the era of “liquid modernity”. The society
where the frenetic pace of innovation and change makes the “conditions under which
its members act change faster than it takes the ways of acting to consolidate into
habits and routines" and where “a pool of choices” at the same time represents a
“hotbed of uncertainties” (Bauman, 2007: 1). Those armed with globally recognized
professional credentials, entrepreneurial spirit and cross-cultural competence are the
ultimately desirable “human capital" and the paragons of the “liquid life": the model
residents of global cities (Colic-Peisker, 2010). But those who are not thus endowed, and
perhaps coming from distant hinterlands without educational and urban skills, may
struggle to keep afloat in the liquid modernity of the global city. They may end up as
unintentionally flexible workforce in poorly paid, uncertain causal jobs, or
undocumented arrivals left to the mercy of their employers and those providing their
accommodation, sometimes working in underground industries and in Third World
conditions, lingering on the social and economic margins of the city. In spite of the
accolades given to the “knowledge workers" and innovators, the global city, and
globalization itself, could not work without those who end up fulfilling the unglamorous
but nonetheless indispensable “low skilled services. “

The city lights have always attracted and will continue to attract the young, the
hopeful and the entrepreneurial, and the cities will always be the history-making places.
In the early twenty-first century, one half of humankind lives in urban areas and this
proportion is bound to increase. However, the growth of cities comprises very different
pathways: affluent global cities, able to attract financial and human capital, will
continue their planned growth to increase their livability and global significance, and
the gap between them and the chaotic, slum-ridden megacities of the Third World is
likely to become wider as a consequence of capitalist globalization.

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 Activity 10. A
(Objective Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

TRUE or FALSE Type:

Write A if the statement is correct and B if incorrect.

_____ 1. Global cities are centers for innovation and business.

_____ 2. Cities are categorized similarly depending on their role in the global sense.
_____ 3. A global city is recognized with the need for a political subdivision.
_____ 4. Global cities have very large population.
_____ 5. International financial institutions that are influential are located in global cities.
_____ 6. Conservative culture dominates the global cities.
_____ 7. Global cities that attract large population intakes suffer housing affordability.
_____ 8. According to a Japanese foundation, global power of cities is determined by
five (5) key factors.
_____ 9. Brain concentrations have average labor markets.
_____ 10. Global cities exhibit signs of de-industrialization.
_____ 11. A global city enjoys average significant advantage in a globalized economic
system.
_____ 12. Cosmopolitanism is a phenomenon associated with global cities.
_____ 13. Global cities attract the younger population.
_____ 14. Affluent global cities will attract only financial capital.
_____ 15. The Third World will continuously expand as a consequence of capitalist
globalization.

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 Activity 10. B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Answer the questions in not more than 5 sentences each:

1. In what ways are global cities “global? That is, in what ways do they reflect and
represent global phenomena and processes?

2. Apart from being “control centers" and “focal points" of global capitalism, global
cities also harbor challenges to its logic and its global domination. Can you provide
some contemporary examples?

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Learning Objectives:

1. To recognize the importance of demography in globalization

2. To understand how the government and society prepare
solutions to address the issues and demands of aging,
migration, and a changing population,
3. To possess a deeper knowledge and understanding of the
Theory of Demographic Transition

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 11
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
(Mandated Topic)

Meaning of Demography

The word demography is a combination of two Greek words, demos meaning

people and graphy meaning science. Thus demography is the science of people. In
the middle of the 19th century in 1855, the word demography was first used by a French
writer Achille Guillard.

Even though, the term “Population Studies” is more popular, the word
Demography is under wider use these days. It is considered an important subject
capable of throwing light on the nature of population education. Since antiquity a
number of thinkers have expressed their views on the level of economic development
and the size of population. During the time of Confucius, many Chinese and Greek
writers, and following them Aristotle, Plato and Kautilya (around the year 300 B.C.) have
expressed their thoughts on the subject of population. Thus, as a subject, population
education is as old as human civilization.

Writers like William Peterson, Hauser and Duncan consider “Population Studies”
and “Demography” to be different. According to them, Demography encompasses
limited spheres and it studies only the decisive factors of population growth, whereas in
“Population Studies” besides the social, economic, geographical, political and
biological aspects of population, their ensuing relationships are also studied.

Definitions of Demography

The term demography has been defined both in a narrow and broad sense. The
Oxford Dictionary of Economics defines demography as “The study of the
characteristics of human populations.” According to the UN Multilingual Demographic
Dictionary, “Demography is the scientific study of human populations, primarily with
respect to their size, their structure and their development.”

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To Barckley, “the numerical portrayal of human population is known as

demography.” Similarly, according to Thomson and Lewis, “the population student is
interested in population’s size, composition and distribution; and the changes in these
aspects through time; and the causes of these changes.”

All these definitions take a narrow view because they emphasize only the
quantitative aspects of demography. Some other writers have defined demography in
wide sense by taking the quantitative and qualitative aspects of population studies.

In this context, according to Hauser and Duncan, “Demography is the study of

size, territorial distribution and composition of population, changes therein, and the
components of such changes, which may be identified as natality, mortality, territorial
movement (migration), and social mobility (change of status).”

According to Frank Lorimer, “In broad sense, demography includes both

demographic analysis and population studies. A broad study of demography studies
both qualitative and quantitative aspects of population.”

Thus, according to Donald J. Bougue, “Demography is a statistical and

mathematical study of the size, composition, spatial distribution of human population,
and of changes overtime in these aspects through the operation of the five processes
of fertility, mortality, marriage, migration and social mobility. Although it maintains a

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continuous descriptive and comparative analysis of trends, in each of these processes
and in its net result, its long run goal is to develop a body of theory to explain the events
that it charts and compares.”

These broad definitions take into view not only the size, composition and
distribution of population and changes in them in the long run but also imply human
migration and change in the status of population through education, employment,
social status, etc.

Scope of Demography

The scope of demography is very wide. It includes the subject matter of

demography, is it a micro or macro study? Whether it is a science or art, these are
vexed questions about the scope of demography about which there is no unanimity
among writers on demography.

1. Subject Matter of Demography

The subject matter of demography has become very vast in recent years. The
study of demography encompasses the following:

a. Size and Shape of Population

Generally, the size of population means the total number of persons usually
residing in a definite area at a definite time. The size and shape of population of any
region, state or nation are changeable. It is because every country has its own unique
customs, specialties, social-economic conditions, cultural atmosphere, moral values,
and different standards for acceptance of artificial means of family planning and
availability of health facilities, etc.

All these factors affect the size and shape of the population and if these factors
are studied with reference to any area under demography, we can clearly understand
the role they play in determining the shape and size of the population.

b. Aspects Related to Birth Rate and Death Rate

Birth rate and death rate are the decisive factors that influence the size and
shape of the population and therefore their importance in population studies is crucial.
In addition to these, factors like marriage rate, belief regarding social status and
marriage, age of marriage, orthodox customs related to marriage, early marriage and
its effects on the health of the mother and the child, child infanticide rate, maternal
death, still birth, resistance power, level of medical services, availability of nutritious
food, purchasing power of the people, etc. also affect the birth and death rate.

c. Composition and Density of Population

In the subject matter of demography, the study of composition and density of

population is important. In the composition of population factors like the sex ratio; race
wise and age-group wise sizes of population; the ratio of rural and urban population;
distribution of population according to religion and language; occupational distribution
of population; agricultural and industrial structure; and per square kilometer density of
population are very important.

With this type of information regarding the possibilities of development in that

particular area, social-economic problems of the area, problems created due to
increase in urban population, and density of population form part of population studies.

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Socio-Economic Problems

Out of the many problems relating to population growth, the effects of high
density due to industrialization in the urban areas are of more importance as they
affect the socio-economic life of the people. Problems like slum areas, polluted air and
water, crime, addiction to liquor, juvenile delinquency, and prostitution, are also
important subjects of study in demography.

Quantitative and Qualitative Aspects

Along with the quantitative problems of population, the qualitative problems

also form part of population studies. Moreover, the study of demography includes the
availability of physicians in the total population, number of hospitals, the number of
beds in hospitals, expectation of life at birth, daily availability of minimum calories,
resistance power, advertisement of family planning program and its development, the
changes brought in the attitudes of people regarding child birth and adequate
medical facility for delivery, etc.

2. Distribution of Population

Population studies include the following:

(a) How people are distributed among and within continents, world regions, and
developed and underdeveloped countries?

(b) How their numbers and proportions change?

(c) What political, social and economic causes bring changes in the distribution
of population. Within a country, it also includes the study of distribution of
population in rural and urban areas, fanning and non-farming communities,
working classes, business communities, etc.

Migration plays an important role in the distribution of population and supply of

labor. Demography studies the factors that lead to internal and external migration of
people within a country and between countries, the effects of migration on the
migrants and the place where they migrate.

Urbanization is another factor in the distribution of population within the country.

The focus in population studies is on factors responsible for urbanization, the problems
associated with urbanization and the solutions thereto.

Similarly, theories of migration and urbanization form part of the study of

demography.

3. Theoretical Models

There are vast theoretical aspects of population studies which include the
various theories of population propounded by sociologists, biologists, demographers
and economists, and theories of migration and urbanization.

4. Practical Aspects

Practical aspects of population studies relate to the various methods of

measuring population changes such as the census methods, age pyramids, population
projections, etc.

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5. Population Policy

Population policy is an important subject of demography especially in the

context of developing countries. It includes policies for population control and family
planning strategies; reproductive health; maternal nutrition and child health policies;
policies for human development of different social groups; and the effects of such
policies on the total population of the country.

6. Micro vs. Macro Study

The true scope of demography relates to whether it is a micro or macro study.

Micro Demography. Micro demography is the narrow view of population studies.

Among others, Hauser and Duncan include the study of fertility, mortality, distribution,
migration, etc. of an individual, a family or group of a particular city or area or
community.

As pointed out by Bogue, “Micro demography is the study of the growth,

distribution and redistribution of the population within community, state, economic area
or other local area.” According to the micro view, demography is primarily concerned
with quantitative relations of demographic phenomena.

Macro Demography. A majority of writers take the macro view of population

studies and include the qualitative aspects of demography. To them, demography
includes the interrelationships between population and social, economic, and cultural
conditions of the country and their effects on population growth.

It studies size, composition and distribution of population, and long run changes
in them. Why migrations take place and what are their effects? What leads to
urbanization and what are its consequences? All these form part of macro aspects of
population studies which also include unemployment, poverty and policies relating to
them; population control and family welfare; and theories of population, migration and
urbanization, etc.

Prof. Bogue explains macro demography as “the mathematical and statistical

study of the size, composition, and spatial distribution of human population and of
changes over time in these aspects through the operations of the five processes of
fertility, mortality, marriage, migration and social mobility. It maintains a continuous
descriptive and comparative analysis of trends, in each of these processes and in their
net result. Its long run goal is to develop theories to explain the events that it charts and
compares.”

Balanced View

Writers like Bogue, Lorimer and others favor a balanced view of population
studies. They do not believe in dividing the study of demography into two separate
micro and macro divisions.

As pointed out by Lorimer, “A demographer limited to the merely formal

treatment of changes in fertility, mortality and mobility would be in a position like that of
a formal chemist observing the compression of mercury with no information about
associated changes in temperature or the constituent of the liquid.”

Therefore, the scope of demography should include both micro and macro
aspects of population. According to Thompson and Lewis, it should relate to fertility,
mortality, information about female population, their health, marital status, distribution
and classification of population according to occupation, and collection and study of
information about social and economic condition, and migration of population.

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7. Demography as a Science

Before studying whether demography is a science, it is essential to know what

science is and to what extent the characteristics of science are applicable to
demography.

A science is a systematized body of knowledge ascertainable by observation

and experimentation. It is a body of generalizations, principles, theories or laws which
traces out a causal relation between cause and effect.

For any discipline to be a science, it must meet the following criteria:

(i) It must be a systematized body of knowledge;

(ii) It must have its own laws or theories;
(iii) They can be tested by observation and experimentation;
(iv) They can make predictions;
(v) They can be self-corrective; and
(vi) Have universal validity.

Demography possesses all the above noted elements of a science which can be
described as:

1. a systematized body of knowledge in which facts are studied and analyzed in a

systematic manner;

2. having its own theories like the Malthusian Theory, the Theory of Demographic
Transition, etc.;

3. having theories which have been tested on the basis of observation;

4. making predictions on the basis of cause and effect relationships. It can predict
about changes in population;

5. self-corrective in nature; it goes on revising its conclusions in the light of new facts
based on observations; and

6. its principles having universal validity as they are applicable to all countries,
given the same conditions.

Thus on all counts, demography is a science. It is not only a positive science of

“what is” but also a normative science of “what ought to be.” It studies the causes and
effects of population problems and also suggests policy measures to solve them.

To conclude with Irene Taeuber, “With improved data, new techniques and
precise measurement of the demographic transition that is occurring, demography has
become a science. In fact, it has become an applied science and applied
technology.”

Importance of Demography

With the majority of developing countries facing population explosion, the study
of population and its problems has become very important in every sphere of an
economy. We discuss them below:

(1) For the Economy

The study of demography is of immense importance to an economy. Population

studies help us to know how far the growth rate of the economy is keeping pace with

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the growth rate of population. If population is increasing at a faster rate, the pace of
development of the economy will be slow. The government can undertake appropriate
measures to control the growth of population and to accelerate the development of
the economy.

Rapid population growth reduces per capita income; lowers the standard of
living; plunges the economy into mass unemployment and under employment; and
brings environmental damage and puts a burden on existing social infrastructure.
Population studies highlight these problems of the economy to be solved by the
government.

(2) For the Society

Population studies have much importance for the society. When population is
increasing rapidly, the society is faced with innumerable problems. Shortages of basic
services like water, electricity, transport and communications, public health, education,
etc. arise.

Along with these, problems of migration and urbanization are associated with
the growing population which further lead to the law and order problem. Faced with
such problems which are the concomitant result of population growth, the state and
non-government social organizations can adopt appropriate measures to solve them.

(3) For Economic Planning:

Data relating to the present trend in population growth help the planners in
formulating policies for the economic plan of the country. They are kept in view while
fixing targets of agricultural and industrial products, of social and basic services like
schools and other educational institutions, hospitals, houses, electricity, transport, etc.

Population data are also used by the planners to project future trends in fertility
and to formulate policy measures to control the birth rate.

Based on population data, projections are made about the increase in labor
force, and the number of people in the age-groups 1-15 years, 15-50 years and above
in order to estimate the labor force available for productive employment. This, in turn,
helps in making estimates regarding employment to be generated during the plan
period.

(4) For Administrators

Population studies are also useful for administrators who run the government. In
under-developed countries, almost all social and economic problems are associated
with the growth of population. The administrator has to tackle and find solutions to the
problems arising from the growth of population. They are migration and urbanization
which lead to the coming up of shanty towns, pollution, drainage, water, electricity,
transport, etc. in cities.

These require improvement of environmental sanitation, removal of stagnant

and polluted water, slum clearance, better housing, efficient transport system, clean
water supply, better sewerage facilities, control of communicable diseases, provision of
medical and health services, especially in maternal and child welfare by opening
health centers, opening of schools, etc.

Stages of Demographic Transition

The knowledge of demography is of immense importance for a democratic

political system. It is on the basis of the census figures pertaining to different areas that

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the demarcation of constituencies is done by the election commission of a country. The
addition to the number of voters after each election helps to find out how many have
migrated from other places and regions of the country.

Political parties are able to find out from the census data the number of male
and female voters, their level of education, their age structure, their level of earning,
etc. On these basis, political parties can raise issues and promise solutions in their
election manifestos at the time of elections.

Further, it is on the basis of male and female voters in an area that the election
commission establishes election booths for voters and appoints the election staff.

II. DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental disaster and the
end of human existence as we know it, or you think people will always adapt to
changing circumstances, we can see clear patterns in population growth. Societies
develop along a predictable continuum as they evolve from unindustrialized to post-
industrialized stage. Demographic Transition Theory (Caldwell & Caldwell 2006) suggests
that future population growth will develop along a predictable four or five-stage
model.

Stage 1

In Stage 1 (pre-industrial society), death rates and birth rates are high and
roughly in balance. An example of this stage is the United States in the 1800s. All human
populations are believed to have had this balance until the late 18th century, when this
balance ended in Western Europe. In fact, growth rates were less than 0.05% at least
since the Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago.

Population growth is typically very slow in this stage, because the society is
constrained by the available food supply. Therefore, unless the society develops new
technologies to increase food production (e.g. discovers new sources of food or
achieves higher crop yields), any fluctuations in birth rates are soon matched by death
rates.

Stage 2

In Stage 2 (developing country), the death rates drop rapidly due to

improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce
diseases. Afghanistan is currently in this stage.

The improvements specific to food supply typically include selective breeding

and crop rotation and farming techniques. Other improvements generally include
access to technology, basic healthcare, and education. For example, numerous
improvements in public health reduce mortality, especially childhood mortality. Prior to
the mid-20th century, these improvements in public health were primarily in the areas of
food handling, water supply, sewage, and personal hygiene. Another variable often
cited is the increase in female literacy combined with public health education
programs which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In Europe, the death rate declined which started in the late 18th century in
northwestern Europe and spread to the south and east over approximately the next 100
years. Without a corresponding fall in birth rates this produces an imbalance, and the
countries in this stage experienced a large increase in population.

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Stage 3

In Stage 3, birth rates fall. Mexico’s population is at this stage. Birth rates
decrease due to various fertility factors such as access to contraception, increase in
wages, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence agriculture, an increase in the status
and education of women, a reduction in the value of children’s work, an increase in
parental investment in the education of children and other social changes. Population
growth begins to level off. The birth rate decline in developed countries started in the
late 19th century in northern Europe.

While improvements in contraception do play a role in birth rate decline, it

should be noted that contraceptives were not generally available nor widely used in
the 19th century and as a result, it did not likely play a significant role in the decline
then.

It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused also by a transition in

values; not just because of the availability of contraceptives.

Stage 4

During Stage 4, there are both low birth rates and low death rates. Birth rates
may drop to well below replacement level as has happened in countries like Germany,
Italy, and Japan, leading to a shrinking population, a threat to many industries that rely
on population growth. Sweden is considered to currently be in Stage 4. As the large
group born during stage two ages, it creates an economic burden on the shrinking
working population. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to
increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging
population in developed countries. By the late 20th century, birth rates and death rates
in developed countries leveled off at lower rates.

Stage 5 (Debated)

Some scholars delineate a separate fifth stage of below-replacement fertility

levels. Others hypothesize a different Stage 5, involving an increase in fertility. The United
Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high-fertility, intermediate-fertility,
or low-fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates that the population growth will triple
between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently concentrated in
sub-Saharan Africa. For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the United States,
India, and Mexico all fall into this category), growth is expected to be about 26
percent. And low-fertility countries like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually
see population declines of approximately 20 percent.

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 Demographic Transition Overview

Conclusions

As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these

countries. The model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and
may not accurately describe all individual cases. The extent to which it applies to less-
developed societies today remains to be seen. Many countries such as China, Brazil
and Thailand have passed through the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) very
quickly due to fast social and economic change. Some countries, particularly African
countries, appear to be stalled in the second stage due to stagnant development and
the effect of AIDS.

Key Points

• Demographic transition theory suggests that populations grow along a

predictable five-stage model.

• In stage 1, pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates are high and roughly
in balance, and population growth is typically very slow and constrained by the
available food supply.

• In stage 2, that of a developing country, the death rates drop rapidly due to
improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increase life spans and
reduce disease.

• In stage 3, birth rates fall due to access to contraception, increases in wages,

urbanization, increase in the status and education of women, and increase in
investment in education. Population growth begins to level off.

• In stage 4, birth rates and death rates are both low. The large group born during
stage two ages and creates an economic burden on the shrinking working
population.

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 • In stage 5 (only some theorists acknowledge this stage—others recognize only
four stages), fertility rates transition to either below-replacement or above-
replacement.

Key Terms

Demographic Transition Theory. Describes four stages of population growth,

following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial
Introduction to Sociology or Demography.

Criticisms to The Theory of Demographic Transition

Despite its usefulness as a theory describing demographic transition in Western

Countries, it has been criticized on the following grounds:

1. Sequences of Stages are not Uniform

Critics point out that the sequences of the demographic stages have not been
uniform. For instance, in some East and South European countries, and in Spain in
particular, the fertility rates declined even when mortality rates were high. But in
America, the growth rate of population was higher than in the second and third stage
of demographic transition.

2. Birth Rate did not Decline Initially in Urban Areas

Nolestein’s assertion that the birth rate declined initially among urban population
in Europe has not been supported by empirical evidence. Countries like Sweden and
France with predominantly rural populations experienced decline in birth rates to the
same extent as countries like Great Britain with predominantly urban population.

3. Explanations of Birth Rate Decline Vary

The theory fails to give the fundamental explanations of decline in birth rates in
Western countries. In fact, the causes of decline in birth rate are so diverse that they
differ from country to country.

Thus the theory of demographic transition is a generalization and not a theory.

Not only this, this theory is equally applicable to the developing countries of the world.
Very backward countries in some of the African states are still in the first stage whereas
the other developing countries are either in the second or in the third stage. India has
entered the third stage where the death rate is declining faster than the birth rate due
to better medical facilities and family welfare measures of the government.

But the birth rate is declining very slowly with the result that the country is
experiencing population explosion. It is on the basis of this theory that economists have
developed economic- demographic models so that developing countries should enter
the fourth stage.

One such model is the Coale-Hoover model for India which has also been
extended to other developing countries. Thus this theory has universal applicability,
despite the fact that it has been propounded on the basis of the experiences of the
European countries.

Conclusion to the Theory of Demographic Transition

The theory of demographic transition is the most acceptable theory of

population growth. It does not lay emphasis on food supply like the Malthusian theory,
nor does it develop a pessimistic outlook towards population growth. It is also superior to

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the Optimum Theory which lays an exclusive emphasis on the increase in per capita
income for the growth of population and neglects the other factors which influence it.

The biological theories are also one-sided because they study the problem of
population growth simply from the biological angle. Thus the demographic transition
theory is superior to all the theories of population because it is based on the actual
population growth trends of the developed countries of Europe. Almost all the
European countries have passed through the first three stages of this theory and are
now in the fourth stage.

Demographic Transition in East Asia

The acceleration of demographic transition in East Asia is a process of great

potential import for the world. The most rapid and large scale transformation of
demographic pattern in world history is being accomplished in this region.
Demographic processes in other countries and regions have been viewed in the light of
past events. Demographic transition has been accepted as a desirable goal, but its
realization was believed subject to certain constraints. These include the need to attain
high rates of economic growth in order to stimulate the transition and the longer period
of time required to accomplish the transition. It was assumed that at least 2 generations
would be subject to gradually diminishing rates of increase and slow cultural
modification before transition entered its last phase.

This interpretation of the preconditions and specific character of demographic

transition has been subject to increasing challenge, and recent events in East Asia
accentuate such doubts. Most new views begin with the premises that contemporary
pre-transition societies are not European in culture and the 1970s are not the 1880s. East
Asia also differs culturally from other developing areas, including South and Southeast
Asia. The most significant regional features are cultural. Demographic transition in the
region began after World War 2 and somewhat differently in each East Asian country.

The process began first in Japan. The 3rd phase was accomplished rapidly but
not as a specific consequence of the modernization process. The end of World War 2
and the spurt in births accompanying military demobilization contributed to a
population surge. The cultural factors of practicality, homogeneity, social discipline,
and nearly universal literacy were decisive here. Abortion was legalized in 1948 and
other forms of birth control were made readily available. Between 1947 and 1957 the
birthrate was halved to 17/1000. In Taiwan and South Korea public concern about high
rates of population increase was initially expressed in the early 1960s. The government
of Taiwan designed a 10-year plan of action to reduce the rate of increase from 2.9% to
1.9% by 1975, a goal that was reached on schedule. The South Korean experience was
similar. The birthrate decreased from 2.9% to about 2.0% between 1960-70.
Demographic conditions in North Korea are known only poorly. Decreased growth rates
in all of these countries would not be of major significance if the demographic situation
within China remained unchanged, but marked alterations in birthrate have occurred
in China.

These reductions in average family size were realized in essentially similar ways.
The basic mechanisms were delayed marriage, increased use of contraceptive
devices, abortion, and sterilization. More fundamental to the success of family planning
programs than mere access to the techniques have been the ability of different
countries to provide incentives for birth limitation. A vital element in the success of
family planning programs in East Asia has been a marked drop in mortality. Overall, a
rising level of prosperity appears less essential than does provision of basic subsistence
and a broadened range of occupational options for both sexes and all classes.

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Has the Philippines Backed into a Demographic Trap?

The demographer Frank Notestein's Theory of demographic transition classifies all

societies into one of three stages. The first is pre-modern: high death rates cancel out
high birth rates, and population grows vary slowly if at all. Most of the world was in this
stage of large families and many deaths until the early 20th century. The second stage
is characterized by a sharp drop in deaths (due to accelerated gains in education,
public health measures, and food production), while birth rates remain high. Population
grows rapidly. The Philippines, like most of Asia, entered this stage in the 1960s.

The third stage occurs when economic and social gains combine with lower
infant mortality rates to reduce the desire for large families. Birth rates are slow to again
achieve equilibrium with mortality rates, but at much lower levels. The urgent question
today is what happens if and when countries fail to complete the demographic
transition to the third stage and remain locked, as the Philippines are now, in the
second. The World Watch Institute has observed that polarized population growth rates
are driving 50% of the world toward a better future and 50% toward ecological
deterioration and economic decline.

Countries such as the Philippines are experiencing a slow demographic transition

with high birth rates and sluggish living standards. Filipinos must consider whether the
21st century will bring shortages of land, forests, water, fuel, and resources and a
population hungry, crowded, and in need of stability and health. Instead of a
demographic transition, the Philippines may find itself in a demographic trap.

Has The Philippines Undergone Demographic Transition?

The Philippines is in Stage 2 (rapid population growth) heading into Stage 3

(population stabilization) with 107 million people. Its population is still growing at a rate
of 1.5 percent (or one and a half million people) per annum and the average fertility
rates stand at 2.8 children per woman. It also comes at a time in which its economy is
becoming more highly developed and as having children becomes less financially
advantageous in the current digital age.

It might attract attention from a reader, but it is actually the slowest the country’s
population has grown since its independence 120 years ago. The country’s population
was growing at a rate of more than 3.5% per year in the 1960s as on average, the
average Filipino woman had six or seven children. At that time, most Filipinos lived in the
rural country sides, working on their farms. They would have needed more children to
run the farm efficiently as manpower. Today, the majority of the archipelago’s 107
million inhabitants live in cities. The costs of having children outweigh the benefits when
a couple moves to a city like Manila.

The Philippines of today is also far richer than the Philippines of the 1960s (in terms
of size). It is commonly known that poor people with no access to education tend to
have many children which they may not be able to handle while it is the opposite of
educated rich people despite having the means to freely procreate. Twenty-five (25)
percent of the country lives in poverty and they often cannot afford to educate the
oftentimes many children they have. But the majority who are middle class have few
children who they can adequately educate and take care of. There are many Filipinos
complaining about overpopulation in the country, but it is mostly overpopulated in the
cities that reach the headlines everywhere.

The first Spanish colonial census in 1591 recorded an urban population of 660
thousand people in Manila and Cebu. In 1898, the Philippines had a recorded
population of eight million. By 1968, the Philippines had 35 million people; that number
has since tripled. The Philippines has undergone the transition from Stage I to Stage 2
during the first half of the 20th century. And it began the transition to Stage 3 at the turn

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of the 21st century. The country’s population will top off at around 150 million during the
middle of the 21st century as the country becomes fully developed and as the
population stabilizes before beginning the transition into Stage 4 towards the end of this
century. So the Philippines is still undergoing the demographic transition, but its
population growth has begun to stabilize as we go into Stage 3.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 11.A
(Objective Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Multiple Choices Type: Below are situations that describe the different stages of
demographic transition, Write A for stage 1; B for stage 2; C for stage 3; and D for stage
4 on the blank before each number.

____1. Stationary population

____2. High birth rate but low death rate
____3. Large families
____4. Urbanization and industrialization
____5. Low death rate and low birth rate
____6. Insignificant growth rate
____7. Decreased infant mortality rate
____8. Improvement in contraceptive technology
____9. Declining population rate
____10. Migration is insignificant
____11. Population explosion
____12. Malthusian Paradigm
____13. Inexistent family planning
____14. Heavy agricultural independence
____15. Higher food Production

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 Activity 11.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Stationary Population? Discuss it

from the economic and cultural aspects of demographic transition. Limit your answers
to 5 sentences only.

2. The Philippines is a third world country whose demographic transition is its crucial
stage because of the growing population. The government and the church have
consistently debated on the issue of population control because of its moral impact. If
you were to choose, will you be for or against artificial means of population control?
Defend your answer in not more than 5 sentences only.

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Learning Objectives:

1. To identify the political, economic, cultural, and social

factors underlying the movements of people

2. To understand the present migration policies of different

countries

3. To appreciate the political, economic, cultural, and social

advantages and disadvantages of global migration

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 12
GLOBAL MIGRATION

OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL MIGRATION

In the last decades, after the “Cold” War and the “Fall of the Berlin Wall”, the
strengthening of overall population mobility is evident on local, regional, national and
global scales. In addition, there are changes in the scope and direction of migration,
their structural characteristics and increasing in the number of determining factors and
consequences, which affects the complexity of this phenomenon. It is important to
point out the emergence of new forms of migration as a result of intensifying pace of
globalization, which is an integral part of migration.

The total number of migrants in the world (internal and external) in the first
decade of the 21st century reached the highest value in history and is around one
billion, with small, but continuous increase in share of total population. This means that
one in every seven people in the world has changed place of residence, either within
their own country (about 700 million of internal migrants) or moved to another country
(244 million international migrants). Therefore, some authors point out that all of us are
becoming migrants. Also, the number of irregular migrants recently has reached its
highest amount, which implies an intensification of government actions to regulate
migration through the creation of effective policies, spatial mobility, and intensification
of bilateral, regional, and international negotiations in this domain.

Estimates show that the number of migrants will continue to grow, especially the
number of climate migrants, persons who left their homes due to changes in the
environment. That is why it is of crucial importance in the first place to understand
migrations properly and then to create the steps towards the best solutions in solving
the problems caused by population movement in space and create proper migration
policies.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Global. Relating to the whole world

Migration. The movement of people from one place to another

Migrants. According to UN Migration Agency it refers to any person who is

moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his/her
habitual place of residence, regardless of: (a) the person's legal status; (b) whether the
movement is voluntary or involuntary; (c) whatever the causes for the movement are;
and (d) whatever the length of the stay is.

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 Movement of people
from one place to
GLOBAL MIGRATION another around the
world.

INTERNAL MIGRATION INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Movement within a state or Movement of people from one
country country to another
(i.e., from urban to rural) (i.e., from Philippines to USA)
place)
IMMIGRATION EMIGRATION
Moving into a Leaving one’s
country of which country to move to
one is NOT a native another

Figure. Internal and International Migration

Internal Migration vs. International Migration

Internal Migration International Migration

Does not pose a problem Brain drain effect Pose a serious problem of
of brain drain brain drain
Semi-skilled and unskilled Mostly seen in Professional and skilled
workers in the rural and people
semi-urban areas
Less when compared to Amount of money sent Very high
international migrants

Note: Check this link for easier understanding regarding Global Migration:
[Link]

Brain Drain. This refers to a situation where all or the majority of intelligent, skilled or
capable resources within a given field or geographic region leave the area because of
various factors including lack of high-paying jobs.

Factors Underlying Global Movement (Key Points)

• Socio-political, economic, and ecological factors are the main forces driving
migration.

• Rising communal violence world-wide, often as a result of ethnic or religious

intolerance, has led to increased levels of migration.

• Economic disparity between developing and developed economies

encourages the movement of skilled labor from the former to the latter.

• Temporary migration visas allow for an increase in the rate of circular migration.

• Changes in the ecological environment have the potential to worsen food and
water insecurity in various parts of the globe. Limited access to food and water

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 resources may push people to migrate to countries where these resources are
more readily available.

Analysis

Many factors that influence migration are difficult to predict. While social,
political and economic developments are exceptionally difficult to predict precisely,
judgements can be made based upon current situations. Ecological disruption is easier
to pre-empt as there is a large body of scientific evidence to suggest that this factor will
be a cause for concern in the near future. Environmental modelling, as well as
worsening food and water security in many countries, shows that ecological issues are
already beginning to present challenges globally. Ecological factors have the potential
to become an increasingly significant force influencing migration over the 21st century.

Migrants themselves can be divided into two broad categories: humanitarian

and economic. Humanitarian migrants include asylum seekers and refugees. These
individuals generally migrate to countries geographically close to their country of origin.
Over the past decade, Afghanistan has been a major source of humanitarian
emigrants, with Pakistan and Iran becoming their main destination countries. Economic
migrant, on the other hand, migrate in order to find employment or improve their
financial circumstances. In the past, these migrants have generally moved from poorer
to richer countries, however, recent evidence suggests that this is beginning to change
with increasing levels of south-south and circular migration being seen.

Socio-Political Factors

Social push factors can include ethnic, religious, racial, and cultural persecution.
Warfare, or the threat of conflict, is also a major push factor. In the Australian context,
most asylum seekers arriving by boat in the last decade have come from Afghanistan,
Iran, Iraq and Sri Lanka. All of these countries, apart from Iran, have undergone
extremely destabilizing conflicts in recent years. On the other hand, while it is free of
violent conflict, Iran has one of the worst human rights records in the world leading
many of its citizens to seek asylum outside of its borders.

The politicking of religious and ethnic identities has the potential to cause
significant levels of conflict within states. Empirical evidence suggests that states
undergoing a political transition from authoritarian rule to democracy are at greater risk
of instability and internal conflict. Often these states lack the ability to properly respond
to social instability. Several states within the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), including
Burma, have recently begun to democratize while failing to simultaneously develop a
shared national identity capable of tying together the various groups within their
borders. In socially diverse states the potential for conflict may be greater than in more
homogenous or inclusive societies. The future level of migration from these countries is
wholly dependent upon the longevity and severity of any conflict that could arise from
social grievances.

Individuals migrating due to social or political conditions are more likely to do so

as humanitarian migrants. This will have an impact upon where they settle as some
countries have more liberal approaches to humanitarian migrants than others. In the
first instance, these individuals are likely to move to the nearest safe country that
accepts asylum seekers. This does not, however, prevent them from undertaking a
second migration to a country that provides a broader range of legal rights to asylum
seekers and refugees.

Economic Factors

Economic factors relate to the labor standards of a country, its unemployment

situation and the overall health of its economy. If economic conditions are not

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favorable and appear to be at risk of declining further, a greater number of individuals
will probably emigrate to one with a better economy. Often this will result in people
moving from rural to urban areas while remaining within the confines of their state
borders. As the low and middle-income countries of today continue to develop and
the high-income countries experience slower economic growth, migration from the
former could decline.

Economic migrants are drawn towards international migration because of the

prospect of higher wages, better employment opportunities and, often, a desire to
escape the domestic social and political situation of their home country. These migrants
are most likely to come from middle-income countries where the population is
becoming increasingly well educated. Salaries and wages, however, are likely to
remain relatively low compared to those of individuals with a similar educational
background in other, higher-income countries. This disparity has the potential to lead to
some highly-skilled individuals from developing countries migrating to more developed
countries. This form of migration is known as south-north migration and has historically
been the main form of economic migration.

In south-north migration, individuals from developing countries moved to more

developed countries for work and sent remittances back to their country of origin. Over
the past decade, however, south-south migration has become increasingly common.

In 2013, south-south migration accounted for 36 per cent of all international

migration while south-north movements accounted for 35 per cent. According to the
Migration Policy Institute, migration between developing countries is built upon
proximity, identity networks, income differentials and seasonal migration. For these
reasons, 80 per cent of south-south migration occurs between states with contiguous
borders where common cultural identities are likely to be found. The increasing
prevalence of south-south economic migration is likely to continue as the barriers to
migration are lower than south-north migration. Migrants from the south are generally
less skilled and lower-educated than their counterparts from the north, making it difficult
for them to migrate to more developed countries. Additionally, since migration occurs
over smaller geographical distances it is potentially less disruptive to migrants and
communities.

Technological advancement, both in communications and transport, in addition

to the liberalization of labor markets, has the potential to increase the rate of circular
migration. This form of migration occurs when individuals migrate between an origin
and a destination on several separate occasions. Generally, economic forces motivate
individuals to move to countries where employment prospects are better before
returning to their country of origin. Studies have shown that circular migration can have
positive development outcomes. Most importantly, circular migrants are more likely to
send larger remittances back to their country of origin than those who permanently
settle within their destination country. Furthermore, issues relating to brain drain and a
hollowing out of the labor force are largely averted. Problems of exploitation still remain,
suggesting that efforts need to be made to ensure that standardized regulations are
adopted to protect the rights of circular migrants.

Economic migrants have a greater degree of choice in determining their

destination than humanitarian migrants. Many asylum seekers will flee to the nearest
safe country that will accept them whereas economic migrants will move to countries
that either require their skills or have better conditions than their country of origin. Pull
factors within the destination country are therefore more likely to influence the decision
making process of economic migrants.

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Ecological Factors: Climate Disruption Exacerbates Other Forces

Of the ecological factors that push individuals to migrate, climate change is,
arguably, the most serious. Over the next decade, climate change has the potential to
intensify the impacts of the social, political and economic push factors described earlier
in this paper. Even if individuals affected by climate change move only short distances
this has the potential to alter social, political and economic dynamics. The possibility of
social issues arising increases when tribal, ethnic and religious groups that were
historically separate are forced to intermingle due to traditional lands no longer being
able to support human settlement.

Individuals engaged in agriculture, for example, could be forced to find

alternative forms of employment as their land is no longer capable of producing or
sustaining viable quantities of goods. Food and water prices are likely to increase in
parts of the region due to greater scarcity of these resources. These burdens place
additional strain upon the capacity of the state to ensure welfare for all and, in some
cases, maintain its stability.

The observable impacts of climate change are likely to become more apparent
over the course of the next decade. States must utilize this time to prepare for the
increased migratory flows that will be a consequence of the inevitable disruption that
will occur over the next century. Climate change will have an impact upon water
resources, agriculture, food security, public health and, in some instances, threaten the
very existence of some states. The impacts of climate change will be most apparent in
developing countries which lack the wherewithal to adequately address, or adapt to,
the changing environment.

Food and water security are expected to become more salient issues over the
coming decades. The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report
suggests that climate change will have its largest impact upon food security by the
middle of this century. Regions that can no longer sustain agriculture are likely to
experience rural to urban migration or, in some cases, increased levels of international
emigration. Another factor that can worsen food insecurity is water security. Increasing
water insecurity in parts of the IOR, especially, has the potential to influence
international migration.

Individuals who are severely impacted by changing ecological conditions may

choose to migrate from their home state in search of more favorable environmental
conditions elsewhere. Those who choose to emigrate due to more frequent or more
destructive natural disasters may identify as climate refugees and seek asylum in other
countries less affected by climatic extremes. Climate refugees are defined as “people
who have to leave their habitats immediately or in the near future, because of sudden
or gradual alterations in their natural environment related to at least one of three
impacts of climate change: sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and drought and
water scarcity.”

This definition, however, has no standing in international refugee law and

organizations. The United Nations, prefers to use the term environmental migrant.
Fearing that it is now too late to take action to prevent climate change the
international community is preparing measures for adaptation. Environmental migration
is one such adaptation measure that must be taken into greater consideration by the
international community.

Conclusion

Increasing levels of intolerance, economic disparities between countries, as well

as the threat of climate change and its associated impacts are all key factors that drive
immigration and population movements. This part of the paper has looked at the major

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factors that influence population movements and immigration. The next will explore
how these factors are likely to impact the IOR over the next decade.

Note: Check this link for easier understanding regarding Pull & Push Factors of Migration:
[Link]

TYPES

PULL FACTORS PUSH FACTORS

These pull people to come to an area These push people to leave an area

Figure. Factors Underlying Global Movement

Table. Pull and Push Factors of Migration

Pull Factors of Migration Push Factors of Migration

1. Political 1. Political
a. Democracy a. Persecution
b. Freedom b. War
2. Social 2. Social
a. Plentiful food a. Poor services
b. Available services b. Lack of education
c. Lots of doctors c. Poor medical care
3. Economic 3. Economic
a. Job opportunities a. Unemployment
b. Better quality of life b. Poor pay
c. Good pay c. Hazardous working conditions
4. Cultural 4. Cultural
a. Diversity a. Very strict culture
b. Interesting culture b. Racism

Effects of Global Migration to Home Country

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Effects of Global Migration to Host Country

Effects of Global Migration to the Home Country

1. Political

Advantage: Easier to manage the country with lesser number of people

Disadvantage: Voters on election will decrease due to lesser number of people;

less supporter means lesser chance of winning in the elections

2. Social

Advantage: New ideas and skills; when they come home, they can apply the
skills they acquired from the country they worked for

Disadvantage: Loss of skilled workers; when graduates went to other countries to

work, the country loses its people who can practice their skills in that country

3. Cultural

Advantage: Learn new culture/way of life; as they were able to learn new
culture, they can actually share it to other people as they go home so that they
may also know the culture of other countries

Disadvantage: Forgets own culture; there is a chance that those who migrated
from other countries will keep on practicing the culture they adapted from the
country they came from

4. Economic

Advantage: Better quality of life and foreign exchange also increase; when there
is a healthy foreign exchange there is a healthy economy as well

Disadvantage: Rate of sales and production decrease; lesser people means

lesser demand, lesser production, and lesser sales

Effects of Global Migration to the Host Country

1. Political

Advantage: Number of votes will increase during election; additional number of

people increases population, thus more votes to get

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 Disadvantage: Difficulty to manage a great number of people

2. Social

Advantage: Presence of skilled labor; the host country can acquire more skills
from the migrants that can be used for the improvement of the host country

Disadvantage: Presence of social or civil pressure; higher number of people

results to higher usage of resources thus creating pressure in all resources

3. Cultural

Advantage: Learn other cultures or ways of life; the people in the host country
can learn the culture of the migrants

Disadvantage: Chances of racism and cultural modification; due to different

culture of people migrating, there are modifications that are happening (i.e.,
some Filipinos are influenced by Korean culture since there is a lot of Korean
migrating to the Philippines).

4. Economic

Advantage: Increase in the rate of production; more workers would mean more
production resulting to economic growth
Disadvantage: Public welfare burden; more number of people to support means
higher rate of assistance. More funds to raise for assistance will lower funds to be
used by the host country’s citizens and nationals thus resulting to a higher
chance of decreasing rate of economic growth.

Transnationalism

Transnationalism refers to the diffusion and extension of social, political, and

economic processes in between and beyond the sovereign jurisdictional boundaries of
nation-states. International processes are increasingly governed by non-state actors
and international organizations. Robinson (1998) states that, just as “social structure is
becoming trans-nationalized, an epistemic shift is required in concurrence with this
ontological shift.” The major topics addressed by transnational studies include
economic globalization, the trans nationalization of the state, classes, political
processes, and culture, and the current integration processes taking place around the
world through formal organizations such as NAFTA and the European Union (Robinson
1998).

A transnational perspective in research means shifting the unit of analysis from

individual states to a global system. Sociology’s object of inquiry, and its fundamental
contribution, within transnational studies is the study of “transnational social structure”
(Robinson 1998). Such a shift means locating non-state forms of governance in existing
and newly emergent areas of international relations. Nye and Keohane (1971) argue
that transnationalism affects diverse areas of international governance including
interstate politics, values, US foreign policy, and international organization. Non-state
sources of governance may develop out of existing, as well as newly emergent, social
movements and civil society organizations.

Transnational perspectives provide deeper understanding into a number of

globally contingent social, economic, and political processes including social
movements, governance and politics, terrorism, political violence, and organized crime
among others. One of the most fruitful areas of study has been transnational migration.
Research in this area looks at issues such as the salient interaction with the receiving
society’s institutions, the migration policies of states, the role of discrimination in limiting

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access to the institutions of the receiving society’s civil society, access to computers
within the home and receiving societies, and the costs and other hardships that affect
groups of migrants (Kivisto, 2001). A growing research agenda concerns the
emergence of civil society, state, and non-state organizations, developed in order to
respond to issues of transnational immigration. Identity is continually challenged by the
fluid legal and social characterizations of migrants created and adapted to local,
national, and international organizations.

According to Global Social Theory, transnationalism is the diffusion (spread) and

extension of social, political, and economic processes in between and beyond the
sovereign (independent) jurisdictional boundaries of nation-states (homogenous).

To support this, Portes (2001) said “It is more useful to conceptualize

transnationalism as one form of economic, political, and cultural adaptation that co-
exists with other, more traditional forms.”

Aguilar (2012) defined transnationalism as a process of complex ramification on

identities and subjectivities and larger social, cultural, political, and economic
dimensions that go beyond the boundaries of the nation-state, even as the realities of
the nation-state remain noticeable for both migrants & non-migrants.

Easier Definition

Transnationalism. This is the process of adapting other culture, practices, and the
like by a person which is added to or modifies their own culture, practice, etc.

Types of Transnationalism (Aguilar, 2012)

1. Sedimented Transnationalism

It is the emblematic way of life of a selected group of immigrants who combine

assimilation (act of being part), acculturation (cultural change) and political
incorporation in the country of settlement with transnational engagement with one’s
origin. This type of transnationalism proceeds from the immigrant’s secure rootedness in
the destination.

2. Modular Transnationalism

Immigrants refrain from translating ways of belonging into ways of being in

transnational social fields. Furthermore, it is revealed by the transportability of their
transnational practices between the origin and the destination, arising from their state
enforced back and forth mobility. In simple words, the migrant worker cannot have a
single orientation focused on either origin or destination, because the exigencies of
both sending and receiving states as well as the requisites of the job and the
expectations of kin compel the worker to remain engaged transnationally.

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 Activity 12.A
(Objective Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Multiple Choices:
Below are statements that refer to reasons why people migrate. Write A if it is
political, B if it is social, C if it is cultural, and D if it is an economic factor on the space
before each item.

_____1. Persecution or War

_____2. Escape from endemic corruption
_____3. Rising communal violence
_____4. Marital status and relatives
_____5. Political violence and disturbance
_____6. Quest for education
_____7. Kinship residents
_____8. Better facilities
_____9. Asylum seekers
_____10. Migrant transnationalism
_____11. More fund assistance or subsidies
_____12. Skilled labor force
_____13. Difficulty to manage the population
_____14. Increased production
_____15. Civil pressure

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 Activity 12.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

1. Choose one Push Factor and one Pull Factor and explain why they have the most
pervasive effects on migration. Explain in not more than 5 sentences.

2. Read the link below and give an insight on whether you agree or not with the present
U.S, migration policies. Defend your answer in not more than 5 sentences.

[Link]

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Learning Objectives:

1. To understand the findings about the earth’s state of

sustainable development
2. To differentiate stability from sustainability
3. To recognize the factors that affect a state’s economic
growth and development
4. To appreciate the 17 enumerated United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) crafted in 2012
5. To articulate models of global sustainable development

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 13
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

The world has been hearing of news about sea creatures dying because of
plastic waste ingestion. Last March 2019, a whale was found dead in the Davao gulf.
Based on the analysis of marine experts, the whale’s death may have been caused
by starvation as brought by the huge amount of plastic ingested by the creature. A
total of 88 pounds of plastic waste was recovered from its body. This is not an isolated
case. Reports of the same kind were becoming a constant reminder about the extent
of environmental degradation that is happening around the world. These images
transcend the borders of each state as the world begins to rethink development from
the lens of sustainability.

Global non-profit organization “Forum for the Future”, published its findings about
the state of the earth. In its report, it highlighted the following:

1. Plastic Pollution

Although eight million tons of plastic enters our oceans every year and only
14 percent of plastic is actually recycled, we continue to produce and throw away
vast amounts of plastic every day with no real change in sight. Some consumers,
governments, and businesses are waking up to the consequences of this throw-
away culture, and many have taken bold steps to reduce the amount of plastic
that is generated and disposed.

2. The Climate Crisis and Migration

With large parts of the world becoming less hospitable due to climate change, it
is expected that more people will seek to migrate to safety from these threats. We
already have record levels of displacement brought on by drought; agricultural failure;
and food and water shortages. Rising oceans will certainly displace many others from
low-lying coastal areas, and more major cities are expected to run out of drinking
water in the near future. These mass migrations will require changes in government
priorities and policies to cope with these potential humanitarian crises.

3. The Problem of Nationalism

Nationalist governments and movements are rising around the world spawning
fragmentation, intolerance, and competition for resources. The causes of these
movements are complex, but growing income inequality; ubiquitous social media;
demographic changes; and increased migration are all contributing factors.
Fragmented global politics risk collaborative efforts like the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals and the Paris Agreement just when they are most needed.

4. The Growth of On-line Life

Half of the world’s population will be online in 2019, and this fact has
consequences for our politics, mental health, social cohesion and personal interactions.
While the internet can be a force for good, questions of data privacy and security;
citizen surveillance; lack of accountability; not to mention the huge increase in
electricity needed to drive these platforms may require new efforts to step back and
reassess the costs and benefits of this technology.

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 5. Changing Asian Consumerism

Based on current growth rates, Asia could account for 59 percent of the world’s
middle-class consumption by 2030. Despite a recent slow-down, China still leads the
way with India, Japan, South Korea and Thailand close behind. Ironically, as more
people gain access to goods and services that make a better life, we are losing our
global capacity to sustain these advances. However, there are signs of more
conscious consumerism, particularly with Millennials in Asia, which may slow this trend.

6. The Failing Biodiversity

Scientists believe that we are in the midst of a mass extinction of certain plant
and animal species, and 20 percent of the Amazon rainforest has disappeared in the
past 50 years. Against this backdrop, agriculture is driving vast land conversion and
pesticide use in order to feed a growing population, and urbanization is changing
evolutionary processes, and in some cases creating new species. While there is general
knowledge of these changes, little is being done to stem the causes and understand
the consequences (good or bad) to our fragile eco-system.

These reports, along with news about the problems besetting the environment
had challenged our known concepts of development. From this point of view, the
notions of stability and sustainability need to be visited.

Stability and Sustainability

This chapter discusses the summary of “Sustainable Economic Systems” by

Pociennik Sebastian as presented by Manfred B. Steger (2014) which was adopted
from the “SAGE Handbook of Globalization” edited by Manfred B. Steger, Paul
Battersby, and Joseph M. Sircusa (2014).

Throughout the course of human history, states have attempted to provide

models and create systems that could invariably address the challenges of human
survival and progress. Development has been defined and redefined based on
changing conditions. In the article of Pociennik (2014) on “Sustainable Economic
Systems” he distinguished “stability” and “sustainability” as his reference points in
understanding development. From a simple distinction, these two concepts were:

Stability. This means short term firmness in position, permanence and resistance
to change.

Sustainability. This considers the long term capacities of a system to exist, not its
short- term resistance to change.

This view is essential in identifying whether states employ a lens of “stability” or of

“sustainability”. Basically, states are motivated to develop within the lens of economic
growth. Economic growth refers to the capacity of a system to increase its production
or manufacturing of goods and/or services within a particular time frame. This
corresponds to the productive potential of an economy to meet society’s demands.
From a general economic point of view, this, in turn, can be measured in a state’s
Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment or
unemployment rates, inflation, and other economic variables such as demand, supply,
prices, labor, and capital. This perspective translated into a society which is largely
driven by its production outputs as basis of progress.

States will endeavor to achieve economic growth. On a general scale,

the following factors affect how states construct their respective policies in
relation to development:

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 Natural Resources. The availability of natural resources had been historically an
inevitable tool for states to develop. Economic growth is largely affected by the
amount of natural resources a country possesses. These resources are essential for the
production and manufacturing of goods (and services) that a state will utilize to
achieve its goals.

Human Resources. This also refers to the labor force needed in the production of
goods and services. This includes the level of skills, training, education, and creative
abilities that are available for actual utilization by an economy.

Socio-Political Conditions. The norms, beliefs, customs, value systems, and

traditions of a society can largely contribute to the realization of a state’s economic
objectives. The political stability of a country is regarded as an essential condition for a
stable economic growth.

Technological Development. The application of scientific and production

techniques have a great impact in the productive capacity of an economy. Together
with a strong capital, goods and services can be efficiently produced. A faster rate of
production is an economic advantage that countries aim to achieve.

To a certain extent, the policies and systems of countries were then

reconstructed in order to create favorable conditions that were necessary for
economic growth. Most of the economic indicators back then did not include the
elements of sustainability. Although the environment was given due consideration,
much of the policies were aimed at looking at the environment as a totally disposable
natural resource. The construction of the notion of sustainability was a response to this
observation.

Pociennik (2014) cited the Bruntland Report prepared for the United Nations in
1987 to describe sustainability. Sustainability, also known as sustainable development,
was referred to as that “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” deserves the
label of sustainability. In other words, it is about responsible use of resources. The report
was a response to the environmental problems the world had faced in the 1980s. This
includes excessive deforestation, uncontrolled population growth, destruction of
tropical forests, increased greenhouse effect which caused climate change, and
extinction of living species. It likewise included the destructive effects of an
uncontrolled economic growth and the over consumption of resources. The
Brundtland Report demonstrated how the global economy and the environment are
intertwined.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

From the academics, scientists, and economists, the demand to re-evaluate

current models of development emerged. States and non-state actors began to
rethink development within a new paradigm. The United Nations (UN) then established
the Sustainable Development Goals. The SDGs was a “universal call to action to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure all people enjoy peace and prosperity”.

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) described the basis for the
formulation of the SGDs:

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at the United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in 2012. The objective
was to produce a set of universal goals that meet the urgent environmental,
political and economic challenges facing our world.

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 The SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which started a
global effort in 2000 to tackle the indignity of poverty. The MDGs established
measurable, universally-agreed objectives for tackling extreme poverty and hunger,
preventing deadly diseases, and expanding primary education to all children, among
other development priorities.

For 15 years, the MDGs drove progress in several important areas: reducing
income poverty, providing much needed access to water and sanitation, driving
down child mortality and drastically improving maternal health. They also kick- started
a global movement for free primary education, inspiring countries to invest in their
future generations. Most significantly, the MDGs made huge strides in combatting
HIV/AIDS and other treatable diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis. The following
are the 17 SDGs:

Goal 1 (No Poverty): Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable jobs
and promote equality.

Goal 2 (Zero Hunger): The food and agriculture sector offers key solutions for
development, and is central for hunger and poverty eradication.

Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-Being): Ensuring healthy lives and promoting the well-
being for all ages is essential to sustainable development.

Goal 4 (Quality Education): Obtaining a quality education is the foundation to

improving people’s lives and sustainable development.

Goal 5 (Gender Equality): Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right,
but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world.

Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation): Clean and accessible water for all is an
essential part of the world we want to live in.

Goal 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy): Energy is central to nearly every major
challenge and opportunity.

Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth): Sustainable economic growth will
require societies to create the conditions that allow people to have quality jobs.

Goal 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure): Investments in infrastructure are

crucial to achieving sustainable development.

Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities): To reduce inequalities, policies should be universal in

principle, paying attention to the needs of the disadvantaged and marginalized
populations.

Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities): There needs to be a future in which

cities provide opportunities for all, with access to basic services, energy, housing,
transportation, and more.

Goal 12 (Responsible Production and Consumption): Responsible production and

consumption behaviors and polices are essential to achieving sustainability.

Goal 13 (Climate Action): Climate change is a global challenge that affects everyone,
everywhere.

Goal 14 (Life Below Water): Careful management of this essential global resource is a
key feature of a sustainable future.

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Goal 15 (Life on Land): Sustainable manage forests, combat desertification, halt and
reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.

Goal 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions): Access to justice for all, and
building effective accountable institutions at all levels.

Goal 17 (Partnerships for the Goals): Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development.

Relative to the concept of global citizenship, the United Nations framed the
Sustainable Development Goals (also known as Global Goals) to guide states,
international and local organizations, institutions, and communities to pursue
development programs under a sustainable framework.

Below is a summary of the UN SDGs based on the UNDP Sustainable

Development Goals booklet
([Link]
[Link]).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

In the year 2015, leaders from 193 countries of the world came together to
face the future. And what they saw was daunting. Famines. Drought. Wars.
Plagues. Poverty. Not just in some faraway place, but in their own cities and towns
and villages.

They knew things did not have to be this way. They knew we had enough food
to feed the world, but that it was not getting shared. They knew there were medicines
for HIV and other diseases, but they cost a lot. They knew that earthquakes and floods
were inevitable, but that the high death tolls were not.

They also knew that billions of people worldwide shared their hope for a better
future. So leaders from these countries created a plan called the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). This set of 17 goals imagines a future just 15 years off that
would be rid of poverty and hunger, and safe from the worst effects of climate change.
It is an ambitious plan.

GOAL 1: END EXTREME POVERTY IN ALL FORMS BY 2030

Yes, it is an ambitious goal, but we believe it can be done. In 2000, the world
committed to halving the number of people living in extreme poverty by the year
2015 and we met this goal. However, more than 800 million people around the world
still live on less than $1.25 a day, that is about the equivalent of the entire population
of Europe living in extreme poverty. Now it is time to build on what we learned and
end poverty altogether.

GOAL 2: END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY AND IMPROVED

NUTRITION AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

In the past 20 years, hunger has dropped by almost half. Many countries that
used to suffer from famine and hunger can now meet the nutritional needs of their most
vulnerable people. It is an incredible accomplishment. Now we can go further and end
hunger and malnutrition once and for all. That means doing things such as promoting
sustainable agriculture and supporting small farmers. It is a tall order.

But for the sake of the nearly one (1) out of every nine (9) people on earth who
go to bed hungry every night, we’ve got to try. Imagine a world where everyone has

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access to sufficient and nutritious food all year round. Together, we can make that a
reality by 2030.

GOAL 3: ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND PROMOTE WELL-BEING FOR ALL AT ALL AGES

We all know how important it is to be in good health. Our health affects

everything from how much we enjoy life to what work we can perform. That is why
there is a goal to make sure everyone has health coverage and access to safe and
effective medicines and vaccines. In the 25 years before the SDGs, we made big
strides, preventable child deaths dropped by more than half, and maternal mortality
went down by almost as much. And yet some other numbers remain tragically high, like
the fact that 6 million children die every year before their fifth birthday, or that AIDS is
the leading cause of death for adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. We have the means
to turn that around and make good health more than just a wish.

GOAL 4: ENSURE INCLUSIVE AND EQUITABLE QUALITY EDUCATION AND PROMOTE

LIFELONG LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES FOR ALL

First, the bad news on education. Poverty, armed conflict, and other
emergencies keep many kids around the world out of school. In fact, kids from the
poorest households are four times more likely to be out of school than those of the
richest households. Now for some good news. Since 2000, there has been enormous
progress on the goal to provide primary education to all children worldwide: the total
enrolment rate in developing regions has reached 91%. By measures in any school,
that is a good grade. Now, let us get an even better grade for all kids, and achieve
the goal of universal primary and secondary education, affordable vocational
training, access to higher education and more.

GOAL 5: ACHIEVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER ALL WOMEN AND GIRLS

We can celebrate the great progress the world has made in becoming more
prosperous and fair. But there is a shadow to the celebration. In just about every way,
women and girls lag behind. There are still gross inequalities in work and wages, lots
of unpaid “women’s work” such as child care and domestic work, and discrimination
in public decision- making. But there are grounds for hope. More girls are in school
now compared to year 2000. Most regions have reached gender parity in primary
education. The percentage of women getting paid for their work is on the rise. The
Sustainable Development Goals aim to build on these achievements to ensure that
there is an end to discrimination against women and girls everywhere.

GOAL 6: ENSURE AVAILABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATER

AND SANITATION FOR ALL

Everyone on earth should have access to safe and affordable drinking water.
That is the goal for 2030. While many people take clean drinking water and sanitation
for granted, many others do not. Water scarcity affects more than 40 percent of
people around the world, and that number is projected to go even higher as a result
of climate change. If we continue the path we are on, by 2050 at least one in four
people are likely to be affected by recurring water shortages. But we can take a new
path, more international cooperation, protecting wetlands and rivers, sharing water-
treatment technologies that leads to accomplishing this goal.

GOAL 7: ENSURE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE, RELIABLE, SUSTAINABLE AND MODERN

ENERGY FOR ALL

Between 1990 and 2010, the number of people with access to electricity
increased by 1.7 billion. That is progress to be proud of. And yet as the world’s
population continues to rise, still more people will need cheap energy to light their

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 homes and streets, use phones and computers, and do their everyday business. How
we get that energy is at issue; fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions are making
drastic changes in the climate, leading to big problems on every continent. Instead,
we can become more energy-efficient and invest in clean energy sources such as
solar and wind. That way we will meet electricity needs and protect the environment.
How’s that for a balancing act?

GOAL 8: PROMOTE SUSTAINED, INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH,

FULL AND PRODUCTIVE EMPLOYMENT AND DECENT WORK FOR ALL

An important part of economic growth is that people have jobs that pay
enough to support themselves and their families. The good news is that the middle
class is growing worldwide, almost tripling in size in developing countries in the last 25
years, to more than a third of the population. But today, job growth is not keeping
pace with the growing labor force. Things do not have to be that way. We can
promote policies that encourage entrepreneurship and job creation. We can
eradicate forced labor, slavery and human trafficking. And in the end we can
achieve the goal of decent work for all women and men by 2030.

GOAL 9: BUILD RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE, PROMOTE INCLUSIVE AND SUSTAINABLE

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FOSTER INNOVATION

Technological progress helps us address big global challenges such as

creating jobs and becoming more energy efficient. For example, the world is
becoming ever more interconnected and prosperous thanks to the internet. The
more connected we are, the more we can all benefit from the wisdom and
contributions of people everywhere on earth. And yet four billion people
have no way of getting online, the vast majority of them in developing countries. The
more we invest in innovation and infrastructure, the better off we will all be. Bridging
the digital divide, promoting sustainable industries, and investing in scientific research
and innovation are all important ways to facilitate sustainable development.

GOAL 10: REDUCE INEQUALITY WITHIN AND AMONG COUNTRIES

It is an old story: the rich get richer, and the poor get poorer. The divide has
never been starker. We can and must adopt policies that create opportunity for
everyone, regardless of who they are or where they come from. Income inequality is a
global problem that requires global solutions. That means improving the regulation of
financial markets and institutions, sending development aid where it is most needed
and helping people migrate safely so they can pursue opportunities. Together, we can
now change the direction of the old story of inequality.

GOAL 11: MAKE CITIES AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS INCLUSIVE, SAFE, RESILIENT
AND SUSTAINABLE

If you are like most people, you live in a city. More than half the world’s
population now lives in cities, and that figure will go to about two-thirds of humanity by
the year 2050. Cities are getting bigger. In 1990 there were ten “mega-cities” with 10
million inhabitants or more. In 2014, there were 28 mega-cities, home to 453 million
people. Incredible, huh? A lot of people love cities; they are centers of culture,
business and life. The thing is, they are also often centers of extreme poverty. To make
cities sustainable for all, we can create good, affordable public housing. We can
upgrade slum settlements. We can invest in public transport, create green spaces, and
get a broader range of people involved in urban planning decisions. That way, we
can keep the things we love about cities, and change the things we don’t.

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 GOAL 12: ENSURE SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION
PATTERNS

Some people use a lot of stuff, and some people use very little, in fact, a big
share of the world population is consuming too little to meet even their basic needs.
Instead, we can have a world where everybody gets what they need to survive and
thrive. And we can consume in a way that preserves our natural resources so that our
children can enjoy them, and their children after that. The hard part is how to
achieve that goal. We can manage our natural resources more efficiently and
dispose of toxic waste better. Cut per capita food waste in half globally. Get
businesses and consumers to reduce and recycle waste. And help countries that
have typically not consumed a lot to move towards more responsible consumption
patterns.

GOAL 13: TAKE URGENT ACTION TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACTS

Every country in the world is seeing the drastic effects of climate change, some
more than others. On the average, the annual losses just from earthquakes, tsunamis,
tropical cyclones and flooding count in the hundreds of billions of dollars. We can
reduce the loss of life and property by helping more vulnerable regions, such as land-
locked countries and island states become more resilient. It is still possible, with the
political will and technological measures, to limit the increase in global mean
temperature to two degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and thus avoid the
worst effects of climate change. The Sustainable Development Goals lay out a way for
countries to work together to meet this urgent challenge.

GOAL 14: CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE THE OCEANS, SEAS AND MARINE
RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The oceans make human life possible. Their temperature, their chemistry, their
currents, their life forms. For one thing, more than 3 billion people depend on marine
and coastal diversity for their livelihoods. But today we are seeing nearly a third of the
world’s fish stocks overexploited. That is not a sustainable way of life. Even people
who live nowhere near the ocean cannot live without it. Oceans absorb about 30
percent of the carbon dioxide that humans produce; but we are producing more
carbon dioxide than ever before and that makes the oceans more acidic (26%
more), since the start of the industrial revolution. Our trash does not help either, 13,000
pieces of plastic litter on every square kilometer of ocean. Sounds bad, right? Do not
despair! The Sustainable Development Goals indicate targets for managing and
protecting life below water.

GOAL 15: PROTECT, RESTORE AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE USE OF TERRESTRIAL

ECOSYSTEMS, SUSTAINABLY MANAGE FORESTS, COMBAT DESERTIFICATION, AND HALT
AND REVERSE LAND DEGRADATION AND HALT BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Humans and other animals rely on other forms of life on land for food, clean air,
clean water, and as a means of combatting climate change. Plant life makes up 80%
of the human diet. Forests, which cover 30% of the Earth’s surface, help keep the air
and water clean and the Earth’s climate in balance. That is not to mention they are
home to millions of animal species. But the land and life on it are in trouble. Arable
land is disappearing 30 to 35 times faster than it has historically. Deserts are spreading.
Animal breeds are going extinct. We can turn these trends around. Fortunately, the
Sustainable Development Goals aim to conserve and restore the use of terrestrial
ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, drylands and mountains by 2030.

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 GOAL 16: PROMOTE PEACEFUL AND INCLUSIVE SOCIETIES FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT, PROVIDE ACCESS TO JUSTICE FOR ALL AND BUILD EFFECTIVE,
ACCOUNTABLE AND INCLUSIVE INSTITUTIONS AT ALL LEVELS

How can a country develop, how can people eat and teach and learn and
work and raise families, without peace? And how can a country have peace
without justice, without human rights, without government based on the rule of law?
Some parts of the world enjoy relative peace and justice, and may come to take it
for granted. Other parts seem to be plagued by armed conflict, crime, torture and
exploitation, all of which hinders their development. The goal of peace and justice is
one for all countries to strive towards. The Sustainable Development Goals aim to
reduce all forms of violence and propose that governments and communities find
lasting solutions to conflict and insecurity. That means strengthening the rule of law,
reducing the flow of illicit arms, and bringing developing countries more into the
center of institutions of global governance.

GOAL 17: STRENGTHEN THE MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION AND REVITALIZE THE GLOBAL
PARTNERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Sustainable Development Goals are pretty big to-do list, don’t you think? In
fact, it’s so big, you may just want to throw your hands up in the air. “Forget it! Can’t
be done! Why even try!” But we’ve got a lot going for us. The world is more
interconnected today than ever before, thanks to the internet, travel and global
institutions. There’s a growing consensus about the need to work together to stop
climate change. And the Sustainable Development Goals are no small matter either.
One hundred ninety-three (193) countries agreed on these goals. Pretty incredible,
isn’t it? One hundred ninety-three (193) countries agreeing on anything? The final goal
lays out a way for nations to work together to achieve all the other Goals.

SustainAbility, a think tank and advisory firm published a sustainability trend

report for the year 2019 where it highlighted the following global trends relative to
sustainability. Some of its analysis include:

1. Current efforts remain insufficient to change our course towards dangerous

climate change.

A rapidly warming climate and failure to adequately reduce greenhouse gas

emissions underscore the urgent need for greater focus on resiliency measures. Rapid,
large-scale investment in effective solutions is needed to prevent global warming from
reaching potentially catastrophic levels. Falling prices for both renewable energy and
natural gas have resulted in modest emission reductions amongst heavy emitters such
as Europe and the United States. However, none of the four largest global polluters
(China, United States, European Union and India) are currently on track to do their part
in global efforts to reach the Paris Agreement goals.

2. Citizens demand a more sustainable, equitable world from companies and

institutions.

Around the world, a small but growing number of citizens are rising up to
challenge institutions, companies and governments to deliver a more equitable and
sustainable society. They are increasingly using social media and other digital
technologies to spread the message, elevate important issues and mobilize people.

3. Trade wars, cybersecurity breaches, and climate change threaten global

security and economic stability.

Trade tensions threaten a weakening global economy, while climate change

and other factors escalate conflicts in the Middle East, Central America and Africa and

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displace millions. Climate change is increasingly recognized as the number one global
security threat. Climate-related security threats include impacts to essential resources
such as agricultural crops and drinking water, which can in turn exacerbate existing
conflicts, as those occurred in Syria and Yemen. Further impacts include direct damage
to infrastructure and communities from wildfires, storms and flooding, and effects on
human health caused by greenhouse gases, associated pollutants, extreme weather
and spreading diseases. All of these impacts can displace communities, increasing the
number of global refugees and escalating geopolitical tensions.

4. Momentum grows to tackle plastic waste as ecosystems are facing

unprecedented threats.

Species are disappearing at alarming rates, land degradation is threatening the

well-being of millions of people, worsening air pollution is costing millions of lives each
year and plastic pollution in oceans and on land is reaching dangerous levels.
Assessments of the earth’s ecosystem present a very bleak picture. While awareness
about biodiversity loss is growing, attention paid by companies and other organizations
to the issue remains limited.

5. Cities, regions and business continue to ramp up leadership as trust in

national governments flounders.
Non-state actors such as city and regional governments and the business
community are stepping into the leadership void and taking action to create a
more sustainable, equitable future. With global leaders failing to take adequate
regulatory action on a range of issues, including climate mitigation and
adaptation, ocean plastics, waste and health, cities and regional governments
are taking on the role of sustainable development leaders.

Models of Global Sustainable Development

Global trends offer a perspective into the challenges and opportunities that
confront the contemporary world. The current model of economic growth and
activity operate on the notion of a linear direction of profit, on the desire to
constantly achieve a state of equilibrium in the interplay of costs and gains, and on
the assumption that market forces typically rotate around the need to be stable.

According to Pociennik (2014), “If one looks for a central term embracing all
the problems mentioned above, it is complexity, or, to be more precise, quickly rising
levels of complexity in modern economies. More commodities, more diversified
preferences and needs of actors, more suppliers and more buyers, faster
communication between them, more sophisticated, global relations between
markets, etc. All these did not fit into relatively simple models anymore and also
challenged traditional, sectoral and nationally oriented regulation”.

Pociennik (2014), citing this Beinhocker (2007), and Milonakis and Fine (2009),
described that the complexity of the system must be revisited in light of these
conditions:

a. This social system should be considered as a dynamic, non-linear, self-

organizing one with intelligent, flexible actors, rather than a set of structurally
similar markets, which all tend towards equilibrium (Beinhocker, 2007).

b. Integration of interdisciplinary approaches into the mainstream, including

psychology, political science (crucial actors and interest), sociology, but also
biology with its evolutionary elements and neuro-economics, as well as physics
to explain problems of imbalances and bubbles in complex systems (Milonakis
& Fine, 2009: 49-71).

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 It is insightful to explore systems that could help address the challenges and
provide a model for re-examining the current track of economic development.
Pociennik (2014) identified some approaches that can be studied.

Varieties of Capitalism

This is posited on a couple of basic assumptions. Firstly, it considers firms as the

most important actors for welfare creation in national economies, since they provide
innovations and new products. To achieve their goals they need access to resources,
to mention the most fundamental ones, capital, labor and skills. This access is not
always easy due to risk and uncertainty which concern almost every transaction in
an economy. Very helpful in this context can be institutions defined as rules of the
game, which structure social interactions. They create a minimum of certainty and
enable transactions. It is easy to imagine that in different countries across the world
institutions have very diversified characters. Some of them are more market oriented,
others put into transactions more hierarchy, rules of associations, networks,
government regulation or even religious norms. These institutional arrangements can
be decisive for competitive profiles of national economies, since they decide how
dynamic or stable access to resources will be.

From the variety of economic systems we can distinguish two outermost,

theoretical models, the Liberal Market Economy (LME) and the Coordinated Market
Economy (CME).

The Liberal Market Economy (LME)

This is characterized by dynamic access to resources, which means, that it is

relatively inexpensive to change conditions of transactions or resign from it. We can
see this feature in design of markets for capital, labor and skills. Capital in LMEs is
derived often from stock markets, where assets can quickly change owners and their
value is estimated by price mechanisms. The labor market is also shaped by
dynamic relations, where hire and fire is relatively easy due to limited regulation. If
firms perceive the market situation bad they simply lay off workers, but if prospects
are promising they quickly employ.

Individuals and potential workers invest in their knowledge and then sell it to
firms. However, due to flexibility of the labor market they tend to choose transferable
skill profiles, since they must consider their chances and balance the promise of
getting a high salary for unique skills with the risk of remaining unemployed. This kind of
system, if well designed and transmitting right incentives, produces radical
innovations, since it is very open to new ideas and new products. It creates a good
environment for new branches, like telecommunication technologies, biotechnology,
and media.

The Coordinated Market Economy (CME)

Transactions are more stable and long term oriented. Capital is provided by
banks which create loyalty based relations with firms, thus the access is “patient”.
The labor market is characterized by long term contracts and relatively low
differences in wage levels. Skills are produced rather in companies, which invest
their own capital in order to create a set of specific, rare qualifications fitting ideally
into their product profile. Since workers get employed for a longer time this kind of
an investment makes sense. Japan and Germany have been considered as typical
examples of CME. Their institutional comparative advantage is found in branches,
which demand very specialized skills and are based on incremental innovations.
They do not compete with low costs, but rather high quality. This is something that
we can easily observe in German and Japanese factories for cars or sophisticated
machines.

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 Contingent in the analysis of Pociennik is the idea that these models (LME and
CME) must be understood like that of a pedal machine. One model works on a given
set of conditions which will then be supported by the next model as the conditions
continuously change. This duality of model application is essential in order to maximize
the expected outcomes of the system. He further narrates: “At the beginning of
innovation cycles, LMEs drive the global system with their new technologies and rising
productivity and CMEs lag behind. It is a time of immigration to LMEs, which offer
higher salaries. Later on, when the wave of innovations calms, CMEs make their own
job by integrating the latest technologies into sophisticated production regimes and
providing the global market with mature, high quality products and also well-
educated workers. This enables LMEs to shift resources to new experiments and
prepare a new wave of innovations. It looks a bit like the case of USA and Europe and
their coexistence in the global economy. This coexistence is definitely not
disadvantageous for stability of development: a bicycle with only one pedal is not a
safe machine”.

Revisiting the Different of Approaches to Growth

The indicators of growth are quite varied. The following are insights about these
indicators and how they can be blended in arriving at a holistic perspective.

1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

It is simply defined as the total value of goods and services produced inside the
domestic economy for a given year. This indicates the extent of production capacity
that a country manifests.

The numbers however only show a parcel of economic growth. The growth of
GDP does not necessarily mean a quality of growth. As Pociennik (2014) argues, “A
high number of goods delivered in a national economy translates to short term growth,
which combined with other short term indicators like inflation or unemployment rates
can say a lot about stability. However, it essentially overlooks many long term
indicators of development, for example accessibility to resources and their ability to
regenerate, and also social issues like health, education and security”.

2. Human Development Index (HDI)

It was created in 1990 by Mahbub ul Haq, the Pakistani economist, and then
developed by the Indian Nobel Prize Laureate Amartya Sen and used by the United
Nations Developing Programme for comparative studies. Its idea is to combine income,
life expectancy and education (see: [Link] It is criticized
particularly for lack of ecological perspective and focusing on formal aspects of
education (school attendance), not really a level of acquired knowledge (Pociennik,
2014).

3. Gross National Happiness (GNH)

This was coined by the king of Bhutan Jigme Singye Wangchuck in 1972. In the
last decade it has been supplemented by a new generation of happiness
measurements (well-being), but their problem is very similar to those of HDI.

Other countries have adopted various indexes of development. Here are

some notable indicators:

Canadian Index of Well-being. This index includes arts, culture and recreation,
community vitality, democratic engagement, education, environment, healthy
populations, living standards and time use.

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 Progress Index. This was developed by economist Stefan Bergheim. It analyzes
income, health, education and environment, a so called ecologic footprint.

____________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 13.A
(Evaluation and Alternate Response Types)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Part I. Evaluation:
This calls for your understanding of the concepts related to global sustainable
development. Write “A” if the statement describes a sustainable activity and “B” if it is
not sustainable.

_____1. Mining activities

_____2. Converting rice fields into factories
_____3. The shift to electric powered vehicles
_____4. Wind turbines of Ilocos Norte
_____5. Converting forest areas into shopping mall areas
_____6. Reduction of luxurious consumption behaviors
_____7. Creation of bicycle lanes for the public
_____8. The use of organic farming techniques
_____9. The creation of single use plastics
_____10. The fossil fuel dependency of the economy

Part II. Alternative Response:

Write “A” if the statement is conceptually correct and “B” if it is otherwise.

_____1. Population growth will have a significant impact on the development

programs of a country.
_____2. Agriculture is driving vast land conversion and mass use of pesticides.
_____3. Sustainable development programs are regarded as short-term
development approaches.
_____4. Stability refers to the long-term condition achieved by a development
approach.
_____5. The political stability of a country is regarded as an essential condition
for a stable economic growth.
_____6. The economic indicators that were used in the past included the
elements of sustainability.
_____7. The Millennium Development Goals are the same with the Sustainable
Development Goals.
_____8. Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable jobs and
promote equality.
_____9. Consumer behavior has an impact on whether an economic model
can be sustainable or not.
_____10. Economic growth does not include the GDP and GNP performance
of a country.

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 Activity 13.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question:

ls the free market (capitalism) approach a better way to sustainability or do we

need more regulation and government interference in this area?

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Learning Objectives:

1. To define global food security

2. To understand the four key pillars of food security
3. To differentiate Chronic Food Insecurity from Transitory Food
Insecurity
4. To appreciate the Five Rome Principles for Sustainable
Global Food Security

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 14
GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

In a report about sustainable consumption published by the World Business

Council for Sustainable Development, the impact of high scale consumerism around
the world had precipitated in the formation of a global food challenge. The report
included:

In its One Planet Business report, the WWF states that each US$ 1 million spent
by consumers on food has an ecological footprint of approximately 1,500 hectares.
Food and drink are reported to have the highest footprint per dollar spent, followed
by household equipment and housing.

In terms of absolute consumption impacts, food, transport, and housing are

seen as the most significant. Food is described as the most important ecological
footprint because of great impacts at both the production and consumption stages.
Housing is reported to use both the most materials and the most energy, contributing
to its high footprint.

The sectoral report made by the think tank SustainAbility, also raised the issue
of food security as a rising global problem:

Growing population and associated food consumption is fueling biodiversity loss

on an unprecedented scale, with 40 percent of the world’s once-forested land now
cleared for human agriculture and settlements.

Ecosystems on land and in the ocean are being devastated by plastic

packaging, a large percentage of which comes from food and beverage products.
Actors in the food value chain, from growers to retailers, are paying increasing
attention to both food and plastic waste, exploring ways packaging can be reduced
without compromising product shelf life or food safety.

Food Security

In the 1974 UN World Food Conference, the concept of food security was
defined. This meant “the availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of
basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset
fluctuations in production and prices”. As brought by emerging challenges on food
production and consumption around the world, the concept was further defined as:

Food security exists “when all people, at all times, have physical, social and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. In articulating its approach, the
FAO identifies four key pillars of food security; availability, accessibility, utilization and
stability in relation to those three aspects.

Towards this concept, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

enumerated the four key pillars of food security, namely:

Food Availability. Food availability addresses the “supply side” of food security
and is determined by the level of food production, stock levels and net trade. This
includes domestic production, the import capacity of a country, and the availability of
food stocks.

Food Accessibility. An adequate supply of food at the national or international

level does not in itself guarantee household level food security. Concerns about
insufficient food access have resulted in a greater policy focus on incomes,
expenditure, markets and prices in achieving food security objectives. This includes the

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physical and economic access to food which are affected by purchasing power,
income, and support infrastructures (transportation and market).

Food Utilization. Utilization is commonly understood as the way the body makes
the most of various nutrients in the food. Sufficient energy and nutrient intake by
individuals is the result of good care and feeding practices, food preparation, diversity
of the diet, and intra-household distribution of food. Combined with good biological
utilization of food consumed, this determines the nutritional status of individuals.

Food Stability. Even if your food intake is adequate today, you are still
considered to be food insecure if you have inadequate access to food on a periodic
basis, risking a deterioration of your nutritional status. Adverse weather conditions,
political instability, or economic factors (unemployment, rising food prices) may have
an impact on your food security status.

Chronic Food Insecurity and Transitory Food Insecurity are the two general
types of food insecurity. The following table below provided by the FAO gives a
distinction:

CHRONIC FOOD INSECURITY TRANSITORY FOOD INSECURITY

A. Is: Long term or persistent Short term or temporary

B. Occurs People are unable to meet There is a sudden drop in the

when: their minimum food ability to produce or access
requirements over a enough food to maintain a
sustained period of time. good nutritional status.

C. Results Extended periods of poverty, Short-term shocks and

from: lack of assets and fluctuations in food availability
inadequate access to and food access, including
productive or financial year-to-year variations in
resources. domestic food production,
food process and household
incomes

D. Can be Typical long-term Transitory food insecurity is

overcome development measures also relatively unpredictable and
with: used to address poverty, can emerge suddenly. This
such as education or access makes planning and
to productive resources, such programming more difficulty
as credit. They may also and requires different
need more direct access to capacities and types of
food to enable them to raise intervention, including early
their productive capacity. warning capacity and safety
net.

In the Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition Report of
the Committee on World Food Security, it highlighted the Five Rome Principles for
Sustainable Global Food Security.

The Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security, adopted in
November 2009 by the World Summit on Food Security in Rome, provide a powerful
strategic underpinning for coordinated action by all stakeholders at global, regional
and country level, while embracing the twin-track approach to fighting hunger:

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 Principle 1: Invest in country-owned plans, aimed at channeling resources
to well- designed and results-based programs and partnerships.

Principle 2: Foster strategic coordination at national, regional and global

level to improve governance, promote better allocation of resources, avoid
duplication of efforts and identify response gaps.

Principle 3: Strive for a comprehensive twin-track approach to food security that

consists of: (1) direct action to immediately tackle hunger for the most vulnerable; and
(2) medium and long-term sustainable agricultural, food security, nutrition, and rural
development programs to eliminate the root causes of hunger and poverty, including
the progressive realization of the right to adequate food.

Principle 4: Ensure a strong role for the multilateral system by sustained

improvements in efficiency, responsiveness, coordination and effectiveness of
multilateral institutions.

Principle 5: Ensure sustained and substantial commitment by all partners to

investment in agriculture and food security and nutrition, with the provision of necessary
resources in a timely and reliable fashion, aimed at multi-year plans and programs.

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 Activity 14.A
(Objective Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

I. Matching Type:
Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL LETTERS
and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B
___1. A pillar which addresses the “supply side” of food security A. Food and
and is determined by the level of food production, stock Agriculture
levels and net trade Organization (FAO)
___2. This is a temporary form of food insecurity characterized B. Food Availability
by a sudden drop in the ability to produce or access
enough food to maintain a good nutritional status
___3. This pillar is affected by adverse weather conditions, C. Food
political instability, or economic factors (i.e., Accessibility
unemployment, rising food prices)
___4. This conference in November 2009 adopted the Five D. Food Security
Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security for
all stakeholders at global, regional and country levels
___5. Described as the most important ecological footprint E. Chronic Food
because of great impacts at both the production and Insecurity
consumption stages
___6. This refers to a long term or persistent food insecurity F. Food
where people are unable to meet their minimum food
requirements over a sustained period of time
___7. This pillar considers the way the body makes the most of G. Food Stability
various nutrients in the food, thus determining the
nutritional status of individuals
___8. It exists when all people, at all times, have physical, H. World Summit on
social and economic access to sufficient food Food Security
preferences for an active and healthy life
___9. This institution enumerated the four key pillars of food I. Food Utilization
security (availability, accessibility, utilization and stability)
___10. This pillar includes the physical and economic access to J. Transitory Food
food affected by purchasing power, income, and Insecurity
support infrastructures (i.e., transportation and market)

II. Alternative Response:

Write “A” if the statement is conceptually correct and “B” if it is otherwise.

_____1. A stable supply does not automatically equate to food security.

_____2. Food utilization refers to the production side of basic food.
_____3. Making use of water for profit is an example of commodification of
resources.
_____4. The economic ability of a family is connected to food accessibility.
_____5. Food stability exclusively refers to the people’s access to food.
_____6. The unavailability of food supplies can trigger political chaos.
_____7. Technology transfer does not actually resolve food insecurity.
_____8. Current food corporations are able to address global food shortages.
_____9. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can both be regarded as a
threat and an opportunity in relation to food security.
_____10. Increasing farmer-buyer coordination agreements addresses food loss.

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 Activity 14.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question: Limit your answer to a maximum of five (5) sentences only.

Elaborate on the several alternative approaches to address the various

challenges facing global food security today.

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148 | P a g e
Learning Objectives:

1. To articulate a personal definition of global citizenship

2. To appreciate the ethical obligations of global citizens
3. The recognize cultural diversity and its contribution to global
citizenship

SOURCE: [Link]

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 LESSON 15
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

The OXFAM, an international non-government organization defines global

citizenship as a global citizen “who is aware of and understands the wider world and
their place in it. They take an active role in their community, and work with others to
make our planet more equal, fair, and sustainable”.

The formation of people who will be proactive partners as global citizens

entails the need for a relevant education. The importance of education is an
essential element towards sustainability. The Education 2030 Agenda and Framework
for Action that is anchored on the UN Sustainable Development Goal Number 4 calls
on countries and “ensure that all learners are provided with the knowledge and skills
to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education
for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality,
promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and
appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable
development”. Non- governmental organization KOSMOS, in its journal suggested the
following steps that can be practiced towards becoming a global citizen:

Step 1. RECOGNIZE THE GLOBAL PART OF WHO YOU ARE

All of our lives have become globalized; whether through the Internet, the way
in which we are impacted by the global economy; our desire to provide humanitarian
assistance to disaster victims in countries other than our own; or even in our love of
world art, music, food, and travel. We all have a part of us that is global. Examine your
own life, recognize its global dimension, and reflect on how these affect your view of
the world.

Step 2. EXPAND YOUR DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY

Because of the many ways in which countries and people are now so
interconnected, we all are now part of an emerging world community. This does not
mean that we have to give up being a member of other communities (e.g., our town,
our country, our ethnicity). It means that we have another community, the world
community, to which we now belong. Find ways to celebrate your connection to this
community.

Step 3. DISCOVER THE VALUES OF THE WORLD COMMUNITY

Every community needs to have values, and the world community is no

exception to this rule. The values of the world community reflect the moral ideals that
most of us believe in as the basis for human existence. The examples are human rights,
religious pluralism, participatory governance, protection of the environment, poverty
reduction, sustainable economic growth, elimination of weapons of mass destruction,
prevention and cessation of conflict between countries, humanitarian assistance, and
the preservation of the world’s cultural diversity. Take stock of your belief in these values.
Are you aware of ways in which the world as a whole is trying to live by them?

Step 4. BECOME AWARE OF GLOBAL POLICIES AND PROGRAMS

Whether you realize it or not, all around you, policies and programs are being
developed to help govern our emerging world community. Such policies range in
scope from international treaties that ban the spread of nuclear weapons to
administrative rules and regulations governing the internet.

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Step 5. ENGAGE WITH THE ORGANIZATIONS THAT ARE TRYING TO GOVERN THE WORLD

As a global citizen you should try and build awareness about the different
organizations, which are making the policies shaping our world community. These
organizations include international agencies, like the United Nations and the
International Monetary Fund, legal tribunals like the World Court and the International
Criminal Court, international professional associations like the International Federation
of Accountants or the International Civil Aviation Organization, and transnational
corporations like Starbucks, Hindustan Lever, and Smith/Kline/Glaxo. Try to learn about
and engage with these organizations and make sure that they are operating in
accordance with the values we perceive to be important.

Step 6. PARTICIPATE IN AN ADVOCACY EFFORT FOR GLOBAL CHANGE

Sign petitions, join demonstrations, contribute funds, and explore other ways of
advocating for global change. As global citizens we need to join together to express
the fact that people across the planet share common views when it comes to basic
values such as human rights, environmental protection, and the banning of weapons
of mass destruction. The Global Citizens’ Initiative (TGCI) is an organization that
provides information and opportunities for global citizens to join together and
advocate for change.

Step 7. HELP ENSURE YOUR COUNTRY’S FOREIGN POLICY PROMOTES GLOBAL VALUES

Global citizens also are citizens of the countries in which they were born and
live. As such we have the ability to influence the positions that our countries take on
global issues. We need to help ensure that our country’s foreign policy supports the
building of equitable global solutions to world problems; solutions that work for all
countries. So let your government know how you feel by supporting leaders who want
their countries to become engaged with the world, not isolated from it.

Step 8. PARTICIPATE IN ORGANIZATIONS WORKING TO BUILD WORLD COMMUNITY

There are all sorts of organizations making important contributions to our

emerging world community, the NGOs, global action networks, international
professional associations, transnational corporations, and others. They work on a range
of issues related to the values of our world community—ranging from human rights to
world arts and culture. Pick one, any one that relates to an issue in which you are
interested, and get involved.

Step 9. NURTURE A LIFESTYLE THAT SUPPORTS SUSTAINABLE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT

The environmental movement has taught us a great deal about how everyday
lifestyles and behaviors can have an impact on the quality of life on our planet. The
types of transportation we use, how we heat or cool our homes, the types of clothes
we wear and the food we eat all affect our quality of life. As global citizens we need
to adopt environmentally responsible behaviors in the ways we live.

Step 10. SUPPORT WORLD ART, MUSIC, AND CULTURE

Being a global citizen is also a celebration of the many different arts and
cultures of our people. Take time to learn the ways in which different cultures give
expression to the human spirit.

The contemporary world progresses at different levels with different models of

development. This is a factor in understanding the varying impacts that occur around
the world. Change and progress shall indefinitely collide along with a myriad of
elements. Pociennik concludes:

151 | P a g e
 It is not an exaggeration to say that the first part of the twenty-first century will be
devoted to a search for a new balance between old ambitions to grow quickly now
and new fears of losing chances for growth in the future. This is a revolutionary time for
the human civilization, comparable with the industrial revolution of the nineteenth
century. We still do not have a proper name for the process, and we are not perhaps
able to specify all features of the change. But villagers who moved 200 years ago to
emerging cities must have had a similar perception process.

The questions that Pociennik raised are summed:

Firstly, the issue of sustainability will expand to all fields of economic life and
merge with stability. Short term policies will be evaluated under their long term
impact.

Secondly, we are moving towards a new economic model. It will still be market
economy; there are few symptoms suggesting that totally new alternatives have any
chances to become viable. It will be based on the efficient market approach, which
means no tolerance for asymmetries of information and power, and much better
knowledge about their behavior in complex environments.

The third element will be the pluralism of institutional arrangements which can
create unique competitive profiles of national economies and a more stable global
system.

The fourth and the last element, is a corrected goal and measure of
development. The very focus on growth of production is not sustainable, although still
informing well about a state of economy. However, it will be supplemented with long
term development factors, like social coherence, energy coherence and
environmental coherence. It is a matter of time, then, when this integrated approach to
growth and development becomes a reality.

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 Activity 15.A
(Matching Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Direction: Match the items under Column A with those items under Column B. Write your
answer on the space provided before each of the items below. Use CAPITAL
LETTERS and erasures of any kind will NOT be credited.

Column A Column B

___1. These institutions include the U.N., the International A. Advocacy Efforts for
Monetary Fund, the International Criminal Court, the Global Change
International Civil Aviation Organization, etc.
___2. These moral ideals include human rights, protection of B. Lifestyles that
the environment, sustainable economic growth, Support Sustainable
humanitarian assistance, etc. Global
Development
___3. Influence the positions that our countries take on C. Support World
global issues; thus support leaders who promote Culture
equitable global solutions to world problems
___4. To celebrate the different global arts, music, dance, D. Values of the World
etc. of various people and learning other ways in Community
expressing the human spirit
___5. We have another community, the world community, to E. Recognize the
which we now belong; find ways to celebrate your Global Part of You
connection to this community
___6. These practices include the types of transportation we F. Country’s Foreign
use; how we heat or cool our homes; the types of Policy Must Promote
clothes we wear; and the food we eat Global Values
___7. These groups include the NGOs, global action G. Global Policies and
networks, international professional associations, Programs
transnational corporations, and others
___8. These rules may include international treaties that ban H. Organizations that
the spread of nuclear weapons; or administrative rules Govern the World
and regulations governing the internet, etc.
___9. These may include signing petitions, joining I. Expand Your
demonstrations, contributing funds, and exploring Definition of
other ways of promoting change Community
___10. Examine your own life, recognize its global dimension, J. Organizations
and reflect on how these affect your view of the world Working to Build a
World Community

153 | P a g e
 Activity 15.B
(Essay Type)

Name: Score:
Course/Year/Section: Date:

Essay Question: Limit your answer to a maximum of five (5) sentences only.

Why is it important to cultivate a global citizenship perspective among the

youth?

154 | P a g e
 EVALUATION OF THE COURSE

1. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

3. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4. What topic/s do I find least important?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

5. What possible topics should have been included?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

155 | P a g e
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