Engine

Engine
 Engine
1st stroke: Induction
Referred to Top Dead Center (TDC), the piston is moving downwards and
increases the volume of the combustion chamber (7) sothat fresh air (gasoline
direct injection) or fresh air/fuel mixture (manifold injection) is drawn into the
combustion chamber past the opened intake valve (5). The combustion chamber
reaches maximum volume at Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
2nd stroke: Compression
The gas-exchange valves are closed, and the piston is moving upwards in the
cylinder. In doing so it reduces the combustion-chamber volume and compresses
the air/fuel mixture. On manifold-injection engines the air/fuel mixture has
already entered the combustion chamber at the end of the induction stroke.
3rd stroke: Power (or combustion)
Before the piston reaches Top Dead Center (TDC), the spark plug (2) initiates the
combustion of the air/fuel mixture at a given ignition point (ignition angle). This
form of ignition is known as externally supplied ignition. The piston has already
passed its TDC point before the mixture has combusted completely. The gas-
exchange valves remain closed and the combustion heat increases the pressure
in the cylinder to such an extent that the piston is forced downward.
 Engine
4th stroke: Exhaust
The exhaust valve (6) opens shortly before Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
The hot (exhaust) gases are under high pressure and leave the cylinder
through the exhaust valve. The remaining exhaust gas is forced out by
the upwards-moving piston. A new operating cycle starts again with the
induction stroke after every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
 Engine
Valve timing
The gas-exchange valves are opened and closed by the cams on the
intake and exhaust cam shafts (3 and 1 respectively). On engines with
only 1 camshaft, a lever mechanism transfers the cam lift to the gas-
exchange valves. The valve timing defines the opening and closing times
of the gas-exchange valves. Since it is referred to the crankshaft position,
timing is given in “degrees crankshaft”. Gas flow and gas-column vibration
effects are applied to improve the filling of the combustion chamber with
air/fuel mixture and to remove the exhaust gases. This is the reason for
the valve opening and closing times overlapping in a given crankshaft
angular-position range.
The camshaft is driven from the crankshaft through a toothed belt (or a
chain or gear pair). On 4-stroke engines, a complete working cycle takes
two rotations of the crankshaft. In other words, the camshaft only turns
at half crankshaft speed, so that the step-down ratio between crankshaft
and camshaft is 2:1.
Engine
 Engine
Engine parameters
• Vc: clearance volume
• Vd: cylinder displacement volume
• Vt: total cylinder volume
• S: piston stroke
• A: crank arm radius
• B: Bore diameter
• The ratio of bore diameter for small engines is 0.8 – 1.2.
1: Square engine, under square, over square.
• Compression ratio rc=1+Vd/Vc
• Average piston speed = 2SN
Engine
 Engine

• Net work done

• Mechanical Efficiency, m

• Indicated work: work done inside chamber

• Brake work: work available at the crank

• MEP: mean effective pressure =W(one cycle)/Vd, brake, indicated, and net

• Torque, T=bmep*Vd/(2n)

• (Heat added) Qin=mf*QHV*c (combustion efficiency)

• (Volumetric efficiency) v= mact/mth

Engine Dynamometers
• Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over
the engine operating ranges of speed and load. They do this
by using various methods to absorb the energy output of the
engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.
• Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in
water or oil pumped through orifices or dissipated with
viscous losses in a rotor–stator combination. Large amounts
of energy can be absorbed in this manner, making this an
attractive type of dynamometer for the largest of engines.
• Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the
engine being tested, rotating in a magnetic field of controlled
strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor
cutting the lines of magnetic flux and producing eddy
currents in the disk. With no external circuit, the energy from
the induced currents is absorbed in the disk.
Supercharger
 Supercharger
• Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors mounted in the
intake system and used to raise the pressure of the incoming air.
This results in more air and fuel entering each cylinder during each
cycle. This added air and fuel creates more power during
combustion, and the net power output of the engine is increased.
• Superchargers are mechanically driven directly off the engine
crankshaft. They are generally positive displacement compressors
running at speeds about the same as engine speed.
• The power to drive the compressor is a parasitic load on the
engine output, and this is one of the major disadvantages
compared with a turbocharger. Other disadvantages include higher
cost, greater weight, and noise.
• A major advantage of a supercharger is very quick response to
throttle changes. Being mechanically linked to the crankshaft, any
engine speed change is immediately transferred to the
compressor.
• The compressor of a turbocharger is powered by
a turbine mounted in the exhaust flow of the
engine.
• The advantage of this is that none of the engine
Turbocharger
shaft output is used to drive the compressor, and
only waste energy in the exhaust is used.
• However, the turbine in the exhaust flow causes a
more restricted flow, resulting in a slightly higher
pressure at the cylinder exhaust port. This
reduces the engine power output very slightly.
• Turbocharged engines generally have lower
specific fuel consumption rates. They produce
more power, while the friction power lost
remains about the same.
• Maximum pressure in an engine exhaust system
is only slightly above atmospheric, so there can
be only a very small pressure drop through the
turbine. Because of this, it is necessary to run the
turbine at very high speeds so that enough power
is produced to run the compressor.
• Speeds of 100,000 to 130,000 RPM are common.
These high speeds, and the fact that exhaust gas is a
hot, corrosive environment, demand special
Turbocharger
materials and concern for long-term reliability.
• A disadvantage of turbochargers is turbo lag, which
occurs with a sudden throttle change. When the
throttle is quickly opened to accelerate an
automobile, the turbocharger will not respond quite
as quickly as a supercharger. It takes several engine
revolutions to change the exhaust flow rate and to
speed up the rotor of the turbine.
• Turbo lag has been greatly reduced by using
lightweight ceramic rotors that can withstand the
high temperatures and that have very little mass
inertia.
• Turbo lag can also be reduced by using a smaller
intake manifold.
Turbocharger
 Turbocharger
• Most turbochargers, like superchargers, are
equipped with an aftercooler to again lower the
compressed air temperature.
• Many also have a bypass that allows the exhaust
gases to be routed around the turbocharger when
an inlet air pressure boost is not needed.
• Radial flow centrifugal compressors, turning at high
speed, are generally used on automobile-size
engines.
• On very large engines, axial flow compressors are
used because of their greater efficiency at the
higher air flow rates.
 EGR
• The mass of the residual gas remaining in the cylinder, and
with it the inert-gas content of the cylinder charge, can be
influenced by varying the valve timing. In this case, one refers
to “internal” EGR.
• The inert gas content can be influenced far more by applying
“external” EGR with which part of the exhaust gas which has
already left the cylinder is directed back into the intake
manifold through a special line (Fig. 1, Pos. 3).
• EGR leads to a reduction of the NOX emissions and to a
slightly lower fuel-consumption.
• Limiting the NOX emissions
Since they are highly dependent upon temperature, EGR is
highly effective in reducing NOX emissions. When peak
combustion temperature is lowered by introducing burnt
exhaust gas to the air/fuel mixture, NOX emissions drop
accordingly.
 EGR
Lowering fuel consumption
When EGR is applied, the overall cylinder charge increases
while the charge of fresh air remains constant. This means
that the throttle valve (2) must reduce the engine throttling
if a given torque is to be achieved. Fuel consumption drops
as a result.
EGR: Method of operation
• Depending upon the engine’s operating point, the engine ECU
(4) triggers the EGR valve (5) and defines its opened cross-
section. Part of the exhaust gas (6) is diverted via this opened
cross-section (3) and mixed with the incoming fresh air (1).
• EGR is also used on gasoline direct-injection engines to
reduce NOX emissions and fuel consumption.
• In fact, it is absolutely essential since with it NOX emissions
can be lowered to such an extent in lean-burn operations that
other emissions-reduction measures can be reduced
accordingly (for instance, rich homogeneous operation for
NOX “Removal” from the NOX accumulator type catalytic
converter).
Catalytic emissions control system
 Catalytic emission control
• Catalytic exhaust-gas aftertreatment with the aid of a three-way catalytic converter is currently the
most effective form of emission control for gasoline engines. The three-way catalytic converter is an
integral component of the exhaust-emission control systems of both manifold-injection engines and
gasoline direct-injection engines.
• In the case of homogeneous mixture distribution with a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (λ = 1), a three-
way catalytic converter at normal operating temperature is able to convert the following pollutants
virtually completely: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HCs) and nitrous oxides (NOX).
• Precise lambda closed-loop control monitors the composition of the air/fuel mixture and regulates
it at a value of λ = 1. Although these ideal conditions cannot always be maintained in all operating
states, pollutant emissions can on average be reduced by more than 98%.
• Because the three-way catalytic converter is unable to convert the nitrous oxides in lean mode (λ >
1), an additional NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter is used in engines with a lean operating
mode.
• Catalytic converters can be divided into the following categories: Continuously operating catalysts,
and Intermittently operating catalysts
 Catalytic emission control
• Continuously operating catalytic converters convert pollutants uninterrupted and without actively
intervening in the engine operating conditions. The following systems are classed as continuously
operating: the three-way catalytic converter, the oxidation catalytic converter and the SCR catalytic
converter (Selective Catalytic Reduction; currently used in diesel engines only).
• Intermittently operating catalytic converters operate in different phases, which are initiated in each
case by an active change in the boundary conditions by the catalytic-converter system. The NOX
accumulator-type catalytic converter operates intermittently: In the event of excess oxygen in the
exhaust gas, NOX is accumulated, and the system is switched to rich mode (oxygen deficiency) for
the subsequent regeneration phase.
Catalytic emissions control system
 Catalytic emission control
Three-way catalytic converter method of operation
• The three-way catalytic converter converts the following pollutant components into non-toxic
components during the combustion of the air/fuel mixture: hydrocarbons (HCs), carbon monoxide
(CO) and nitrous oxides (NOX). The end products which result are water vapor (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2).
• The conversion of pollutants can be divided into oxidation and reduction reactions. The oxygen
needed to oxidize HCs and CO is drawn either directly from the exhaust gas or from the nitrous
oxides present in the exhaust gas, depending on the composition of the air/fuel mixture.
• At λ = 1, a state of balance arises between the oxidation and reduction reactions. The residual-
oxygen content in the exhaust gas at λ = 1 (approximately 0.5 %) and the oxygen bound in the
nitrous oxide enable HCs and CO to oxidize completely; the nitrous oxides are simultaneously
reduced. Thus, HCs and CO acts as reducing agents for the nitrous oxides.
• The catalytic converter can compensate for minor mixture fluctuations itself. It has the ability to
accumulate and release oxygen. Its substrate layer contains ceroxide, which can make oxygen
available.
 Catalytic emission control
• In the event of constant excess oxygen (λ > 1), HCs and CO are oxidized by the oxygen present in the
exhaust gas. They are therefore not available for the reduction of the nitrous oxides. The raw NOX
emissions are therefore released untreated.
• In the event of a constant oxygen deficiency (λ < 1), the nitrous-oxide reduction reactions takes
place with HCs and CO as the reducing agents. Excess hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide which
cannot be converted for lack of oxygen are released untreated.
• The quantity of released pollutants is derived from the concentration of the pollutants in the
untreated exhaust gas (Fig. 2a) and from the conversion rate, i.e., from the proportion that can be
converted in the catalytic converter. Both variables are dependent on the set excess-air factor λ.
• The highest possible conversion rate for all three pollutant components requires a mixture
composition in the stoichiometric ratio of λ = 1.0. The window (lambda control range) in which the
air/fuel ratio λ must be situated is therefore very small. Mixture formation must therefore be
followed up in a lambda closed-loop control circuit.
• The conversion rates for HCs and CO rise continuously as the excess-air factor increases, i.e., the
emissions decrease (Fig. 2b). At λ = 1, there is only a very low level of pollutant components in the
untreated exhaust gas.
 Catalytic emission control
• With high excess-air factors (λ > 1), the concentration of these pollutant components remains at
this low level. Conversion of the nitrous oxides (NOX) is good in the rich range (λ < 1). Even a small
increase in the oxygen content in the exhaust gas from λ = 1 impedes the reduction of nitrous
oxides and causes a sharp increase in their concentration.
 Catalytic emission control
NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter
• During lean-burn operation, it is impossible for the three-way catalytic converter to convert the
nitrous oxides (NOX) which have been generated during combustion. CO and HCs are oxidized by
the high residual-oxygen content in the exhaust gas and are therefore no longer available as
reducing agents for the nitrous oxides.
• The NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter (NSC, NOX Storage Catalyst) converts the nitrous
oxides in a different way.
• The NOX accumulator-type catalytic converter is similar in design to the conventional three-way
converter. In addition to the platinum, palladium and rhodium coatings, the NOX converter is
provided with special additives which are capable of accumulating nitrous oxides.
 Catalytic emission control
Method of operation
• At λ = 1, the NOX converter operates the same as a three-way converter. It also converts the non-
reduced nitrous oxides in lean exhaust gases. However, conversion is not a continuous process as it
is with the hydrocarbons and the carbon monoxide, but instead takes place in three distinct phases:
1. NOX accumulation (storage)
2. NOX removal
3. Conversion
NOX accumulation (storage)
• In lean-burn engine operation (λ > 1), the nitrous oxides (NOX) are catalytically oxidized on the
surface of the platinum coating to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Then the NO2 reacts with the
special oxides on the catalyst surface and with oxygen (O2) to form nitrates. Thus, for instance, NO2
combines chemically with barium oxide (BaO) to form the chemical compound barium nitrate
Ba(NO3)2 which enables the NOX converter to accumulate the nitrous oxides which have been
generated during engine operation with excess air.
Catalytic emission control
 Catalytic emission control
• There are two methods in use to determine when the NOX converter is saturated, and the
accumulation phase has finished: The model-supported process calculates the quantity of stored
NOX taking into account the catalyst temperature
• An NOX sensor (Fig. 5, Pos. 6) downstream of the NOX converter measures the NOX concentration
in the exhaust gas
NOX removal and conversion
• As the amount of stored nitrous oxides (charge) increases, so the ability to continue to bind nitrous
oxides decreases. This means that regeneration must take place as soon as a given level is
exceeded, i.e., the accumulated nitrous oxides must be removed and converted.
• To this end, the engine is switched briefly to rich homogeneous mode (λ < 0.8). The processes for
removing the NOX and converting it into nitrogen and carbon dioxide take place separately from
each other. H2, HCs, and CO are used as reducing agents. Reduction is slowest with HCs and most
rapid with H2.
• Removal takes place as follows, with CO being used as the reducing agent
 Engine Cooling System
• About 35% percent of the total chemical energy that enters an engine in the fuel is converted to
useful crankshaft work.
• About 30% of the fuel energy is carried away from the engine in the exhaust flow in the form of
enthalpy and chemical energy. This leaves about one-third of the total energy that must be
dissipated to the surroundings by some mode of heat transfer.
• Temperatures within the combustion chamber of an engine reach values on the order of 2700 K
and up. Materials in the engine cannot tolerate this kind of temperature and would quickly fail if
proper heat transfer did not occur.
• Removing heat is highly critical in keeping an engine and engine lubricant from thermal failure. On
the other hand, it is desirable to operate an engine as hot as possible to maximize thermal
efficiency.
• Two general methods are used to cool combustion chambers of engines. The engine block of a
Liquid-cooled engine is surrounded with a jacket that contains a coolant fluid which is circulated
through the engine. An air-cooled engine has a finned outer surface on the block over which a flow
of air is directed.
 Air Cooled System
• Many small engines and some medium-sized engines are air
cooled. This includes most small-engine tools and toys like lawn
mowers, chain saws, model airplanes, etc.
• This allows both the weight and price of these engines to be
kept low. Some motorcycles, automobiles, and aircraft have air-
cooled engines, also benefitting from lower weight.
• Air-cooled engines rely on a flow of air across their external
surfaces to remove the necessary heat to keep them from
overheating.
• On vehicles like motorcycles and aircraft, the forward motion of
the vehicle supplies the air flow across the surface. Deflectors
and ductwork are often added to direct the flow to critical
locations.
• The outer surfaces of the engine are made of good heat-
conducting metals and are finned to promote maximum heat
transfer.
 Air Cooled System
• Automobile engines usually have fans to increase the air-flow rate and direct it in the desired direction.
Lawn mowers and chain saws rely on free convection from their finned surfaces.
• Some small engines have exposed flywheels with air deflectors fastened to the surface. When the
engine is in operation, these deflectors create air motion that increases heat transfer on the finned
surfaces.
• It is more difficult to get uniform cooling of cylinders on air-cooled engines than on liquid-cooled
engines. The flow of liquid coolants can be better controlled and ducted to the hot spots where
maximum cooling is needed. Liquid coolants also have better thermal properties than air (e.g., higher
convection coefficients, specific heats, etc.).
• The cooling needs are not the same at all locations on an engine surface. Hotter areas, such as around
the exhaust valve and manifold, need greater cooling and a larger finned surface area.
• Cooling the front of an air-cooled engine which faces the forward motion of the vehicle is often much
easier and more efficient than cooling the back surface of the engine. This can result in temperature
differences and thermal expansion problems.
 Liquid Cooled System
• The engine block of a liquid-cooled
engine is surrounded with a jacket
through which coolant liquid flows. This
allows for a much better control of heat
removal at a cost of added weight and
the need for a coolant pump.
• The cost, weight, and complexity of a
liquid coolant system makes this type of
cooling very rare on small and/or low-
cost engines.
• Very few liquid-cooled engines use just
water as the coolant fluid in the jacket.
• The physical properties of water make it
a very good heat transfer fluid, but it has
some drawbacks.
 Liquid Cooled System
• Used as a pure fluid it has a freezing point of 0°C, unacceptable in northern winter climates. Its boiling
temperature, even in a pressurized cooling system, is lower than desired, and without additives it
promotes rust and corrosion in many materials.
• Most engines use a mixture of water and ethylene glycol, which has the heat transfer advantages of
water but improves on some of the physical properties. Ethylene glycol often called antifreeze, acts as a
rust inhibitor and a lubricant for the water pump, two properties not present when water is used alone.
• When added to water, it lowers the freezing temperature and raises the boiling temperature, both
desirable consequences.
• Due to a unique temperature–concentration–phase relationship, the freezing temperature again rises at
high concentrations. The desirable heat transfer properties of water are also lost at high concentrations.
Pure ethylene glycol should not be used as an engine coolant.
 Air vs Liquid Cooled System
• When air cooled compared with liquid-cooled engines, air-cooled engines have the following
advantages: (1) lighter weight, (2) less costly, (3) no coolant system failures (e.g., water pump, hoses), (4)
no engine freeze-ups, and (5) faster engine warm-up.
• Disadvantages of air-cooled engines are that they (1) are less efficient, (2) are noisier, with greater air
flow requirements and no water jacket to dampen noise, and (3) need a directed air flow and finned
surfaces.
• Standard heat transfer equations for finned surfaces can be used to calculate the heat transfer off of
these engine surfaces.
 Liquid Cooled System
• The coolant system of a typical automobile
engine enters the jacket of the engine, usually
at the bottom of the engine.
• It flows through the engine block, where it
absorbs energy from the hot cylinder walls.
• The flow passages in the water jacket are
designed to direct the flow around the outer
surfaces of the cylinder walls and past any
other surface that needs cooling.
• The flow is also directed through any other
component that may need heating or cooling
(e.g., heating of the intake manifold or cooling
of the oil reservoir).
• The flow leaves the engine block containing a
high specific enthalpy because of the energy it
absorbed in engine cooling.
 Liquid Cooled System
• Exit is usually at the top of the engine block. Enthalpy must now be removed from the coolant flow so that
the circulation loop can be closed and the coolant can again be used to cool the engine.
• This is done by the use of a heat exchanger in the flow loop called a radiator. The radiator is a honeycomb
heat exchanger with hot coolant flowing from top to bottom exchanging energy with cooler air flowing
from front to back.
• Air flow occurs because of the forward motion of the automobile, assisted by a fan located behind the
radiator and either driven electrically or off the engine crankshaft. The cooled engine coolant exits the
bottom of the radiator and reenters the coolant jacket of the engine, completing a closed loop.
• A coolant pump that drives the flow of the coolant loop is usually located between the radiator exit and
engine block entrance. This pump is either electric or mechanically driven off the engine. Air leaving the
automobile radiator is further used to cool the engine by being directed through the engine compartment
and across the exterior surfaces of the engine.
• Because of the modern aerodynamic shape of automobiles and the great emphasis on cosmetics, it is
much more difficult to duct cooling air through the radiator and engine compartment. Much greater
efficiency is needed in rejecting energy with the modern radiator heat exchanger.
 Liquid Cooled System
• To keep the coolant fluid temperature from dropping below some minimum value, and thus keeping the
engine operating at a higher temperature and efficiency, a thermostat is installed in the coolant loop,
usually at the engine flow entrance.
• A thermostat is a thermally activated go–no go valve. When the thermostat is cold, it is closed and allows
no fluid flow through the main circulation channel. As the engine warms up, the thermostat also warms
up, and thermal expansion opens the flow passage and allows coolant circulation.
• The higher the temperature, the greater the flow passage opening, with the greater resulting coolant
flow. The coolant temperature is, therefore, controlled fairly accurately by the opening and closing of the
thermostat. Thermostats are manufactured for different coolant temperatures, depending on engine use
and climate conditions.
• Coolant loops of older automobiles operated at atmospheric pressure using mostly water. This limited
overall coolant temperatures to about 180°F (83°C), allowing for a safety margin to avoid boiling. In order
to increase engine operating temperature for better efficiency, it was necessary to increase coolant
temperature.
• This was done by pressurizing the coolant loop and adding ethylene glycol to the water. The ethylene
glycol raised the boiling temperature of the fluid. Pressurizing the system further raises the boiling
temperature of the fluid regardless of the concentration of ethylene glycol.
 Liquid Cooled System
• Normal coolant system pressures are about 200 kPa absolute. It is desirable for the coolant to remain
mostly liquid throughout the flow loop. If boiling occurs, a small mass of liquid becomes a large volume of
vapor, and steady-state mass flow becomes almost impossible to sustain.

• By using ethylene glycol in a pressurized system, high temperatures can be achieved without large-scale
boiling. Localized boiling in small hot spots does occur within the engine water jacket. This is good. The
very hottest spots within the engine (either momentary or almost steady state) require the greatest heat
removal and cooling.

• The phase change that is experienced when boiling occurs at these local hot spots absorbs a large amount
of energy and supplies the necessary large cooling at these spots. The circulating convection flow carries
the resulting vapor bubbles away from the hot spots back into the main stream of the coolant. Here they
condense back into liquid due to the cooler fluid temperature, and bulk flow is not interrupted.
 Friction
• When two solid surfaces are in contact in an engine, they will touch each other at the roughness high
spots of the surfaces. The smoother the surfaces are machined (on a macroscopic level), the lower will be
the surface high points (microscopic) and the less will be the average distance separating them. If one
surface is moved relative to the other, the high points will come into contact and will resist motion
(friction).
• Points of contact will become hot, sometimes to the point of trying to weld together. To greatly reduce
resistance of surface-to-surface motion, lubricating oil is added to the space between the surfaces.
Lubricating oil adheres to the solid surfaces, and when one surface moves relative to the other, oil is
dragged along with the surface. The oil holds the surfaces apart and one surface hydraulically floats on
the other surface.
• The only resistance to relative motion is the shearing of fluid layers between the surfaces, which is orders
of magnitude less than that of dry surface motion. Three important characteristics are needed in a
lubricating fluid:
1. It must adhere to the solid surfaces.
2. It must resist being squeezed out from between the surfaces, even under the extreme forces
experienced in an engine between some components.
3. It should not require excessive force to shear adjacent liquid layers. The property that determines
this is called viscosity.
Friction and Lubrication
 Friction and Lubrication
• Bearings offer a unique lubrication problem because one surface (race) surrounds the other surface
(shaft).When an engine is not in operation, gravity pulls the shaft in any bearing (crankshaft, connecting
rod, etc.) down and squeezes out the oil film between the two surfaces.

• In operation, the combination of a rotating shaft, viscous effects, and dynamic forces from various
directions results in hydraulic floating of the shaft, offset slightly from center.

• The position and thickness of the minimum oil film in the bearing will depend on tolerances, load, speed,
and oil viscosity.
Friction and Lubrication
 Engine Lubrication
• There are three basic types of oil distribution systems used in engines: splash, pressurized, or a
combination of these.
• The crankcase is used as the oil sump (reservoir) in a splash system, and the crankshaft rotating at high
speed in the oil distributes it to the various moving parts by splash; no oil pump is used. All components,
including the valve train and camshaft, must be open to the crankcase.
• Oil is splashed into the cylinders behind the pistons and onto the back of the piston crowns, acting both as
a lubricant and a coolant. Many small four-stroke cycle engines (lawn mowers, golf carts, etc.) use splash
distribution of oil.
• An engine with a pressurized oil distribution system uses an oil pump to supply lubrication to the moving
parts through passages built into the components. A typical automobile engine has oil passages built into
the connecting rods, valve stems, push rods, rocker arms, valve seats, engine block, and many other
moving components.
• These make up a circulation network through which oil is distributed by the oil pump. In addition, oil is
sprayed under pressure onto the cylinder walls and onto the back of the piston crowns.
• Most automobiles actually use dual distribution systems, relying on splash within the crankcase in
addition to the pressurized flow from the oil pump.
Friction and Lubrication
 Engine Lubrication
• Most large stationary engines also use this kind of dual system. Most aircraft engines and a few
automobile engines use a total pressurized system with the oil reservoir located separate from the
crankcase. These are often called dry sump systems (i.e., the crankcase sump is dry of excess oil).
• Oil pumps can be electric or mechanically driven off the engine. Pressure at the pump exit is typically
about 300 to 400 kPa. If an oil pump is driven directly off the engine, some means should be built into the
system to keep the exit pressure and flow rate from becoming excessive at high engine speeds.
• A time of excess wear is at engine start-up before the oil pump can distribute proper lubrication. It takes a
few engine cycles before the flow of oil is fully established, and during this time, many parts are not
properly lubricated.
• Adding to the problem is the fact that often the oil is cold at engine start-up. Cold oil has much higher
viscosity, which further delays proper circulation. A few engines have oil preheaters that electrically heat
the oil before start-up. Some engines have pre oilers that heat and circulate the oil before engine start-up.
• An electric pump lubricates all components by distributing oil throughout the engine. It is recommended
that turbocharged engines be allowed to idle for a few seconds before they are turned off. This is because
of the very high speeds at which the turbocharger operates.
• When the engine is turned off, oil circulation stops and lubricated surfaces begin to lose oil. Stopping the
oil supply to a turbocharger operating at high speed invites poor lubrication and high wear.
 Engine Lubrication
• To minimize this problem, the engine and turbocharger should be allowed to return to low speed (idle)
before the lubrication supply is stopped.
• The oil used in an engine must serve as a lubricant, a coolant, and a vehicle for removing impurities. It
must be able to withstand high temperatures without breaking down and must have a long working life.
• Early engines and other mechanical systems were often designed to consume the lubricating oil as it was
used, requiring a continuous input of fresh oil. The used oil was either burned up in the combustion
chamber or allowed to fall to the ground.
• Just a couple of decades back, the tolerances between pistons and cylinder walls was such that engines
burned some oil that seeped past the pistons from the crankcase. This required a periodic need to add oil
and frequent oil changes due to blowby contamination of the remaining oil. HC levels in the exhaust were
high because of the oil in the combustion chamber.
• Modern engines run hotter, have closer tolerances which keep oil consumption down, and have smaller
oil sumps due to space limitations. They generate more power with smaller engines by running faster and
with higher compression ratios. This means higher forces and a greater need for good lubrication.
• Some modern high-performance automobiles (Mercedes, Corvette) have sensors in the oil sump that
monitor oil level, age, temperature, etc.
 Engine Lubrication
• These systems tell the operator when the oil has degraded to a point that an oil change is required.
• The oils in modern engines must operate over an extreme temperature range. They must lubricate
properly from the starting temperature of a cold engine to beyond the extreme steady-state temperatures
that occur within the engine cylinders.
• They must not oxidize on the combustion chamber walls or at other hot spots such as the center crown of
the piston or at the top piston ring. Oil should adhere to surfaces so that they always lubricate and
provide a protective covering against corrosion. This is often called oiliness. Oil should have high film
strength to assure no metal-to-metal contact even under extreme loads.
• Oils should be nontoxic and nonexplosive. Lubricating oil must satisfy the following needs:
1. Lubrication. It must reduce friction and wear within the engine. It improves engine efficiency by
reducing friction forces between moving parts.
2. Coolant
3. Removal of contaminants
4. Enhancement of ring seal and reduction of blowby
5. Slow corrosion
6. Stability over a large temperature range
7. Long life span and low cost
 Engine Lubrication
• The base ingredients in most lubricating oils are hydrocarbon components made from crude oil.
• These are species with larger molecular weight is obtained from the distillation process. Various other
components are added to create a lubricant that will allow for maximum performance and life span of the
engine.
• These additives include the following:
1. Antifoam agents. These reduce the foaming that would result when the crankshaft and other
components rotate at high speed in the crankcase oil sump.
2. Oxidation inhibitors. Oxygen is trapped in the oil when foaming occurs, and this leads to possible
oxidation of engine components. One such additive is zinc dithiophosphate.
3. Pour-point depressant. (WAX)
4. Detergents. These are made from organic salts and metallic salts. They help keep deposits and
impurities in suspension and stop reactions that form varnish and other surface deposits. They help
neutralize acid formed from sulfur in the fuel.
5. Antiwear agents
6. Friction reducers
7. Viscosity index improvers
 Lubricating oil
• Lubricating oils are generally rated using a viscosity scale established by the
Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE).
• The higher the viscosity value, the greater is the force needed to move
adjacent surfaces or to pump oil through a passage. Viscosity is highly
dependent on temperature, increasing with decreasing temperature In the
temperature range of engine operation, the dynamic viscosity of the oil can
change by several orders of magnitude.
• The oils with lower numbers are less viscous and are used in cold-weather
operation. Those with higher numbers are more viscous and are used in
modern high temperature, high-speed, close-tolerance engines.
• If oil viscosity is too high, more work is required to pump it and to shear it
between moving parts. This results in greater friction work and reduced brake
work and power output. Fuel consumption can be increased by as much as
15%.
• Starting a cold engine lubricated with high-viscosity oil is very difficult (e.g., an
automobile at or a lawn mower at 10°C).
 Lubricating oil
• Multigrade oil was developed so that viscosity would be more constant over the
operating temperature range of an engine. When certain polymers are added to
an oil, the temperature dependency of the oil viscosity is reduced.
• These oils have low-number viscosity values when they are cold and higher
numbers when they are hot. A value such as SAE 10W-30 means that the oil has
properties of 10 viscosity when it is cold and 30 viscosity when it is hot.
• This gives a more constant viscosity over the operating temperature range. This
is extremely important when starting a cold engine. When the engine and oil are
cold, the viscosity must be low enough that the engine can be started without
too much difficulty.
• The oil flows with less resistance and the engine gets proper lubrication. It
would be very difficult to start a cold engine with high-viscosity oil, because the
oil would resist engine rotation and poor lubrication would result because of the
difficulty in pumping the oil.
• On the other hand, when the engine gets up to operating temperature, it is
desirable to have a higher viscosity oil. High temperature reduces the viscosity,
and oil with a low viscosity number would not give adequate lubrication.
 Lubricating oil
• Some studies show that polymers added to modify viscosity do not lubricate as
well as the base hydrocarbon oils. At cold temperatures SAE 5 oil lubricates
better than SAE 5W-30, and at high temperatures SAE 30 oil lubricates better.
However, if SAE 30 oil is used, starting a cold engine will be very difficult, and
poor lubrication and very high wear will result before the engine warms up.
• A number of synthetically made oils are available that give better performance
than those made from crude oil. They are better at reducing friction and engine
wear, have good detergency properties which keep the engine cleaner, offer less
resistance for moving parts, and require less pumping power for distribution.
• The main reason for this better performance is that the base synthetic material
is a homogeneous fluid with similar molecules of the same structure and
molecular weight.
• Crude oil lubricant, on the other hand, has a base fluid structure made up of
dissimilar molecules with a range of molecular weights. With good thermal
properties, synthetic oils provide better engine cooling and less variation in
viscosity. Because of this, they contribute to better cold-weather starting and
can reduce fuel consumption by as much as 15%.
Lubricating oil
• These oils cost several times as much as those made from crude oil. However,
they can be used longer in an engine.
• Various oil additives and special oils that can be added in small quantities to
standard oils in the engine are available on the market. These claim, with some
justification, to improve the viscous and wear resistance properties of normal
oils.
• One major improvement that some of them provide is that they stick to metal
surfaces and do not drain off when the engine is stopped, as most standard oils
do. The surfaces are thus lubricated immediately when the engine is next
started.
• With standard oils, it takes several engine rotations before proper lubrication
occurs, a major source of wear.
• Distribution is a major difficulty when using solid lubricants.
Piston rings
Piston rings Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around
the piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
Near the top of the piston are usually two or more compression
rings made with highly polished surfaces. The purpose of these
rings is to form a seal between the piston and cylinder walls and to
restrict the high-pressure gases in the combustion chamber from
leaking past the piston into the crankcase (blowby). Below the
compression rings on the piston is at least one oil ring, which
assists in lubricating the cylinder walls and scrapes away excess oil
to reduce oil consumption.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Ignition subsystem
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Ignition subsystem

As demands for precise engine management grew, the very basic

ignition timing curves offered by the mechanical systems in
conventional distributors proved unable to satisfy the
requirements.

Electronic ignition requires sensors to monitor engine speed and

load factor and then convert these into electrical signal data for
processing in the ignition control unit.
The microcontroller is essential for achieving the functionality
associated with electronic ignition.
The control unit uses these data to generate the control signal for
the ignition’s coil driver. The corresponding circuitry can be
integrated within the control unit or mounted externally on the
ignition coil.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Ignition subsystem

The most pronounced asset of electronic ignition is its

ability to use a program map for ignition timing. The
program map contains
the ideal ignition timing for range of engine operating
coordinates as defined by engine rpm and load factor; the
timing is defined to provide the best compromise for each
performance criterion during the engine’s design process.
Ignition timing for any given operating coordinates is
selected based on:
• Torque
• Fuel economy
• Exhaust-gas composition
• Margin to knock limit
• Driveability
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Ignition subsystem

A map based on engine speed and battery voltage is

available for dwell angle. This ensures that the energy
stored in the ignition coil can be regulated just as precisely
as with separate dwell control.
A number of other parameters can also have an effect
upon the ignition angle, and if these are to be taken into
account this entails the use of additional sensors to
monitor
• Engine temperature
• Intake-air temperature (optional)
• Throttle-plate aperture (at idle and at WOT)
It is also possible to monitor battery voltage, it is
important as a correction factor for dwell angle.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Ignition subsystem
Distributorless (fully-electronic) ignition:
Fully-electronic ignition includes the functionality of basic
electronic systems. As a major difference, the distributor
used for the earlier rotating high-voltage distribution has
now been replaced with stationary voltage distribution
governed by the control unit. The fully-electronic ignition
system generates a separate, dedicated control signal for the
individual cylinders, each of which must be equipped with its
own ignition coil.
Advantages
• Substantially reduced electromagnetic interference, as
there are no exposed sparks
• No rotating parts
• Less noise
• Lower number of high-tension connections
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
In gasoline engines with manifold
injection, formation of the air/fuel
mixture begins outside the
combustion chamber in the intake
manifold. Since they were
introduced to the market, these
engines and their control systems
have been vastly improved.
Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Knock Control
In terms of their principle of operation, knock
sensors are basically vibration sensors and are
suitable for detecting structure borne acoustic
oscillations. These occur as “knock”, for
instance, in gasoline engines when
uncontrolled combustion takes place.
They are converted by the knock sensor into
electrical signals (Fig. 1) and transmitted to the
Motronic ECU, which counteracts the engine
knock by adjusting the ignition angle.

Mounting
In four-cylinder engines, one knock sensor is sufficient to record the knock signals for all the cylinders. Engines with
more cylinders require two or more knock sensors.
The sensor is usually bolted to the side of the engine block.
Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Knock Control
Design and method of operation:
Due to its inertia, a mass (Fig. 2, Pos. 2) excited by a given
oscillation or vibration exerts a compressive force on a
toroidal piezoceramic element (1) at the same frequency as
the excitation oscillation.
These forces effect a charge transfer within the ceramic
element. An electrical voltage is generated between the
top and bottom of the ceramic element which is picked off
via contact washers (5) and processed in the Motronic ECU.
Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
An electric fuel pump delivers the fuel and generates the
injection pressure, which for manifold injection is typically
about 0.3...0.4MPa (3...4 bar). The built-up fuel pressure to a
large extent prevents vapor bubbles from forming in the fuel
system.
A non-return valve integrated in the pump stops fuel from
flowing back through the pump to the fuel tank and thereby
maintains the system pressure for a certain amount of time,
even after the electric fuel pump has been switched off. This
prevents the formation of vapor bubbles in the fuel system
when the fuel heats up after the engine has been switched off.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
The function of the gasoline filter is to absorb and permanently
accumulate dirt particles from the fuel so as to protect the fuel-
injection system against wear caused by particle erosion.
Fuel filters for gasoline engines are located on the pressure side after
the fuel-supply pump.

The filter housing is manufactured from steel, aluminum or plastic. It is connected to the fuel feed line by a thread,
tube or quick action connection. The housing contains the filter element, which filters the dirt particles out of the
fuel. The filter element is integrated in the fuel circuit in such a way that fuel passes through the entire surface of
the filter medium as much as possible at the same flow velocity.
Special resin-impregnated microfiber papers which are also bonded for higher-duty applications to a synthetic-fiber
layer are used as the filter medium.
The required filter fineness is dependent on the fuel-injection system. For manifold injection systems, the filter
element has a mean pore size of approximately 10μm
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
The DR2 fuel-pressure regulator is used in manifold-injection systems. The
amount of fuel injected by the injector (injected fuel quantity) depends upon
the injection period and the pressure differential between the fuel pressure
in the fuel rail and the counterpressure in the manifold. On fuel systems with
fuel return, the influence of pressure is compensated for by a pressure
regulator which maintains the differential between fuel pressure and
manifold pressure at a constant level. This pressure regulator permits just
enough fuel to return to the fuel tank so that the pressure drop across the
injectors remains constant. In order to ensure that the fuel rail is efficiently
flushed, the fuel-pressure regulator is normally located at the end of the rail.
On returnless fuel systems, the pressure regulator is part of the in-tank unit
installed in the fuel tank. The fuel-rail pressure is maintained at a constant
level with reference to the ambient pressure. This means that the pressure
differential between fuel-rail pressure and manifold pressure is not constant
and must be taken into account when the injection duration is calculated.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
Electrically actuated fuel injectors spray fuel into the
intake manifold at system pressure.
They allow fuel to be metered in the precise quantity
required by the engine. They are actuated by output
stages which are integrated in the engine ECU with the
signal calculated by the engine-management system.
Electrically actuated fuel injectors spray fuel into the intake manifold at system pressure. They allow fuel to be
metered in the precise quantity required by the engine. They are actuated by output stages which are integrated
in the engine ECU with the signal calculated by the engine-management system.
Injector operation
When the solenoid coil is de-energized, the valve needle and valve ball are pressed against the cone-shaped
valve seat by the spring and the force exerted by the fuel pressure.
The fuel-supply system is thus sealed off from the intake manifold. When the solenoid coil is energized, this
generates a magnetic field which attracts valve-needle armature solenoid armature. The valve ball lifts off the
valve seat and the fuel is injected. When the excitation current is switched off, the valve needle closes again due
to spring force.
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem
Injection duration
The injection period, or duration, which is required to
introduce the calculated fuel mass is derived depending
on the narrowest cross-section in the fuel injector, its
opening and closing behavior, and the pressure
differential between the intake-manifold pressure and
the fuel pressure.
Reduction of emissions
In recent years, advances in engine technology have led
to improved combustion processes, producing lower
untreated emissions.
Electronic engine-management systems make it possible
to inject precisely the required amount of fuel in
accordance with the inducted air mass, to control
precisely the moment of ignition.
Engine Management
MOTRONIC
 Engine Management
MOTRONIC
Injection subsystem

ECU functions
Motronic has two basic functions: Firstly, metering the correct mass of fuel in accordance with the air mass
drawn into the engine, and secondly, triggering the ignition spark at the best possible moment in time. In this
way, fuel injection and ignition can be optimally matched.
Actuator triggering
The ECU functions are executed in accordance with the algorithms stored the program memory of the
Motronic ECU. This produces variables (e.g., fuel mass to be injected), which are set by means of actuators
(e.g., defined-time actuation of fuel injectors). The ECU generates the electrical actuating signals for the
actuators.