Angle of attack Sensing
Angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (a) angle, is the angle between the chord line of the wing
of an aircraft and the direction of the relative airflow.
The manner in which an aircraft responds as it approaches and reaches a stalled condition
depends on many other factors, such as wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back,
and also on whether the horizontal stabilizer is in the 'T' -tail configuration.
Stall Warning System
Hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane
protrudes into the airstream.
If the aircraft's attitude changes such that a increases, then, by definition, the airflow will
meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the vane to be deflected.
In larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to perfom a more active
funchon. In that they are either of stick shaker or 'stick push or nudger' type; for some
aircraft configurations they are used in combinations.
Stick Shaker
It consists of a precision counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor·
synchro.
The vane is protected against ice formation by an internal heater element.
Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the extension of its flaps, the
sensor synchro is also interconnected with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap
position indicating system, in order to modify the a signal output as a function of flap
position.
Stick-shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to a control column and
drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column,
to simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
Sensor signals, and signals for the testing of a system, are processed through a circuit
moduie unit located on a flight deck panel. Control switches for normal operation and for
testing are also provided in this unit. Sensing relays and shock strut microswitches on the
nose landing gear are included in the circuit of a system to permit operational change-
over from ground to air.
Stick Pusher
In some types of aircraft, particularly those with rear-mounted engines and a 'T'-tail
configuration, it is possible for what is termed a 'deep' or 'super' stall situation to develop.
When such aircraft first get into a stalled condition then, as in all cases, the air flowing
from the wings is of a turbulent nature. and if the a angle is such that the engines are
subjected to this airflow loss of power will occur as a result of surging and possible
'flame-out'
In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, warning systems are
installed which, in addition to stick-shaking, utilize the a sensor signals to cause a
forward push on the control columns and downward deflection of the elevators.
.
Gyro Horizon
Also called artificial horizon as it sometime called Pitch and bank attitude indicator based
on a vertical gyro (VG), where the gyro‟s spin axis is maintained in the vertical direction relative
to the earth‟s surface. VG will exhibit characteristics associated with real and apparent wander.
The gyro‟s rotor has to be corrected for these two effects; this is achieved by sensing the
gravitational acceleration of the earth and applying torque to the gimbals causing the gyro to
precess into the required position.
Gyro horizon presentations (a) Bottom bank scale; (b) top bank scale.
Principle of operation:
The gimbal system is arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing, and is pivoted
parallel to the aircraft's lateral axis YYI ; and the outer ring is pivoted parallel to the aircraft's
longitudinal axis ZZ,.
The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the rear of the outer ring, and engages an actuating
pin fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever system.
In a climb attitude (Pitch) the bar pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards causing it to
pivot about the stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar and the pointer therefore
move downwards through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since movement is
relative to the symbolic aircraft element, a climbing attitude is indicated.
Nose Up, the outer gimbal is tilted upwards with the aircraft while the gyro axis remains vertical,
the actuating pin fixed to the inner gimbal acts as a fulcrum and brings about an appropriate
lowering of the horizon bar.
Nose Down, the outer gimbal is tilted downwards with the aircraft and the horizon bar rises
accordingly.
In lateral attitude (Roll) of the aircraft, i.e. banking, displaces the instrument case about the axis
ZZ1 and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes are indicated by
movement of the symbolic aircraft element relative to the horizon bar, and also by relative
movement between the bank angle scale and the pointer.
Freedom of gimbal system movement about the roll and pitch axes is 3600 and 850 respectively,
the latter being restricted by means of a 'resilient stop'. The reason for restricting the pitch
movement of a gyro horizon to 850 is to prevent 'gimbal lock'.
Vacuum-Driven Gyro Horizon
The rotor is pivoted in ball bearings within a case forming the inner ring, which in turn is pivoted
in a rectangular-shaped outer ring. The lower rotor bearing is fitted into a recess in the bottom of
the rotor casing, whereas the upper bearing is carried in a housing which' is spring-loaded within
the top cap to compensate for the effects of differential expansion between the rotor shaft and
case under varying temperature conditions.
The outer ring has complete freedom through 3600 about the roll axis. A resilient stop limiting
the 850 pitch movement is fitted on the top of the rotor casing.
With the vacuum system in operation, a depression is created so that the surrounding atmosphere
enters the filtered inlet and passes through the channels to the jets. The air issuing from the jets
impinges on the rotor buckets, thus imparting even driving forces to spin the rotor at approximately
15,000 rev./min. in an anticlockwise direction as viewed from above. After spinning the rotor, the air
passes through a pendulous vane unit attached to the underside of the rotor casing, and is finally
drawn off by the vacuum source.
Electric Gyro Horizon
It is made up of the same basic elements as the vacuum driven type, with the exception that the
vertical gyroscope is a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor (consisting of a rotor and a stator),
One of the essentiaI requirements of any gyroscope is to have the mass of the rotor concentrated as
near to the periphery as possible thus ensuring maximum inertia. An inducation motor normally has
its rotor revolving inside the stator, but to make one small enough to be accommodated within the
space available would mean too small a rotor mass and inertia.
The motor assembly is carried in a housing which forms the inner gimbal ring supported in bearings
in the outer gimbal ring, which is in turn supported on a bearing pivot in the front cover glass and in
the rear casting.
The 11 5 V 400 Hz 3-phase supply is fed to the gyro stator via slip rings, brushes and finger contact
assemblies. The instrument employs a torque-motor erection system. The effect of this current is to
produce magnetic fields around the bars which interact with the stator's rotating field causing the
rotor to turn at a speed of approximately 20,000-23,000 rev./min. Failure of the power supply is
indicated by a flag marked OFF and actuated by a solenoid.
Standby Attitude Indicators
Many aircraft currently in sewice employ integrated flight systems or flight director systems
which comprise indicators that can display, not only pitch and roll attitude data from
remotelylocated vertical gyroscope units, but also associated signal data from radio navigation
systems. Thus, it could be stated that that is no longer a need for a gyro horizon. There is,
however, an airworthiness requirement to meet the case of possible failure of the circuits
controlling the display of aircraft attitude, and so the gyro horizon still finds a place on the
instrument panel, but in the role of a secondary or standby attitude indicator.
DIRECTION INDICATOR
First gyroscopic instrument to be introduced as a heading indicator now it has been
superseded by remote-indicating compass systems and flight director systems. The
instrument employs a horizontal axis gyroscope and, being non-magnetic, is used in
conjunction with a magnetic compass; it defines the short-term heading changes during
turns, while the magnetic compass provides a reliable long-term heading reference.
In its basic form, outer ring of the gyroscope carries a circular card, graduated in
degrees, and referenced against a lubber line fixed to the gyroscope frame. When the
rotor is spinning, the gimbal system and card arc stabilized so that, by turning the frame,
the number of degrees through which it is turning may be read on the card.
The rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported in an inner ring which is
mounted in an outer ring, the bearings of which are located at the top and bottom of the
indicator case. The front of the case contains a cut-out through which the card is visible,
and also the lubber line reference.
When the vacuum system is in operation, the reduced pressure created within the case
allows surrounding air to enter through a filtered inlet and to pass through channels in the
gimbal rings to emerge finally through jets. The air issuing from the jets impinges on the
rotor 'buckets', causing the rotor to rotate at speeds between 12 000 and 18 000 rev/min.
A caging and setting knob is provided at the front of the case to set the indicator on the
same heading as that of the magnetic compass.
The reason for caging the inner ring is to prevent it from precessing when the outer ring
is rotated, and to ensure that, on uncaging, their axes are mutually at right angles.
TURN AND SLIP INDICATORS
In the introduction to gyroscopes we became familiar with the classification of a rate
gyroscope as a single degree of freedom gyroscope designed to measure the rate of
movement (turn) of an aircraft about the vertical axis in degrees per minute rather than
the displacement of an aircraft in degrees of roll or pitch.
The turn and slip indicator consists of two instruments contained in the same case. The
turn indicator being controlled by a gyroscope, whilst the slip indicator can be either a
gravity weight operated pointer, or the more popular curved tube and ball device.
Dial Representation
RATE GYROSCOPE
It differs in two respects from the displacement gyroscopes: It has only one gimbal ring. and it
has a calibrated spring connected between the gimbal ring and casing to restrain movement
about the longitudinal axis YY 1, i.e. it is a single-axis gyroscope.
The measurement of the rate of turn utilizes the precession properties of the gyroscope.
With the rotor at rest the instrument will be in its normal operating position due to the
restraint of the spring keeping the spin axis horizontal, therefore there is no need for
erecting devices to be fitted to the rate gyroscope. For the same reason it is also
unnecessary for the rotor to rotate at high speed, 4000 to 4500 revolutions per minute
being typical values.
In operation, rotation of the aircraft to the left, about the vertical (input) axis Z-Z1 will
make the horizontal gimbal ring move to the left at the front end, which it detects as an
equivalent force being applied to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will
therefore be tilted about the longitudinal axis as a result of precession at point P.
Since precession of a rate gyroscope is equal to its angular momentum and the rate of
turn, then the spring force is a measure of the rate of turn.
Gimbal ring deflection is generally not more than 6°, the reason for this being to reduce
the error due to the rate of turn component not being at right angles to the spin axis
during gimbal ring deflection.
The rate of turn pointer is actuated by the gimbal ring and a magnifying system which
moves the pointer in the correct sense over a scale
Rate of turn is not always marked on a scale, they are classified by the numbers 1 to 4
and correspond to turn rates of 180°, 360°, 540° and 720° per minute respectively.
BANK INDICATION
In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an indication
that an aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary indicating
mechanism is therefore provided which depends for its operation on the effect of
gravitational and centrifugal forces. A method commonly used for bank indication is
one utilizing a ball in a curved liquid-filled glass tube
In normal level flight (diagram (a)) the ball is held at the centre of the tube by the force
of gravity.
Let us assume now that the aircraft turns to the left at a certain airspeed and bank angle
as at diagram (b). The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft, of course,
and because of the turn, centrifugal force in addition to that of gravity acts upon the
ball and tends to displace it outwards from the centre of the tube.
When the turn is executed at the correct bank angle and matched with airspeed, then
there is a balanced condition between the two forces and so the resultant force holds
the ball at the centre of the tube as shown.
If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct, say underbanked as in
diagram (c), then the aircraft will tend to skid out of the turn. Centrifugal force will
predominate under such conditions.
When the turn is overbanked, as at (d), the aircraft will tend to slip into the turn and so
the force due to gravity will now have the predominant effect on the ball. It will thus
be displaced from centre in the opposite direction to that of an underbanked turn.
a) Level Flight, b) Correctly Banked, c) Under Banked(Skid Out), d) Over Banked
(Slip into the Turn)
TURN COORDINATOR
This instrument may be used in smaller aircraft instead of a turn and slip indicator. The
mechanism of a turn co-ordinator is similar to that used in a turn and slip indicator except
that the gimbal is tilted, usually about 300 to the aircraft‟s longitudinal axis. This
makes the gyro precess during a roll as well as when yaw.
Since a turn is initiated by banking, the gyroscope will precess, thereby moving the
aircraft symbol to indicate the direction of the bank, enabling a pilot to anticipate the
resulting turn.
The turn is then controlled by the pilot to the required rate, as indicated by the alignment
of the aircraft symbol (no use of pointer) with the graduations on the outer scale.
Coordination of the turn is indicated by the inclinometer remaining centred.
This instrument must be clearly marked with NO PITCH INFORMATION to prevent
confusion with classic early model artificial horizons.
Various power sources are used for the turn co-ordinator gyro. The gyro may be AC or
DC. Other turn co-ordinators may be air driven and have also an electric motor built
inside the rotor. In this way a failure of either source by itself would not cause the
instrument to fail.
A standard rate turn is defined as a 30 per second turn, which completes a 3600 turn
in 2 minutes. This is known as 2 MIN TURN or rate one (1800/min). Slower
aircraft is equipped with 2 min turn indicators while faster aircraft are equipped
with 4 min turn.
Hence TWO MINUTE TURN – at the bottom of the scale, indicates that when the
pointer is aligned with the rate one mark, it will take two minutes to complete a full
turn of 3600.
Direct-reading magnetic compasses
Fundamental properties of magnet
Classifications of magnetic materiels
GROUP A - HARD IRON. This material is hard to magnetise and is even harder
to de-magnetise. This material displays what is called permanent magnetism.
GROUP B - SEMI-HARD IRON. This is moderately difficult to magnetise but
retains a considerable portion of the magnetising effect after removal of the field,
it is referred to as sub-permanent magnetism
GROUP C - SOFT IRON. This is very easily magnetised but it loses its
magnetism almost entirely as soon as the magnetising field is removed. This
material therefore displays what is called temporary induced magnetism
Terrestial Magnetism: The surface of the earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field
which culminates in two internal magnetic poles, situated near the North and South
true or geographic poles.
A plane passing through the magnet and the centre of the earth would trace on the earth's
surface an imaginary line called the magnetic meridian.
Magnetic Variation: The horizontal angle contained between the true and magnetic
meridian at any place is known as the magnetic variation or declination.
When the direction of the magnetic meridian inclines to the left of the true meridian at any
place, the variation is said to be westerly. When the inclination is to the right of the true
meridian the variation is said to be easterly.
Lines are drawn on the charts, and those which join places having equal variation are called
isogonal lines, while those drawn through places where the variation is zero are called
agonic lines.
Magnetic Dip: A freely suspended magnet needle will settle in a definite direction at any
point on the earth's surface and will lie parallel to the magnetic meridian at that point.
However it will not lie parallel to the earth's surface always reason because magnetic
meridian meets vertically at poles.
The angle the lines of force make with the earth's surface at any given place is called the
angle of dip or magnetic inclination, and varies from 0' at the magnetic equator to 90° at the
magnetic poles.
Places on these charts having the same magnetic dip are joined by lines known as isoclinals,
while those at which the angle is zero are joined by a lineknown as the aclinic line or
magnetic equatr.
Earth's Total Force or Magnetic Intensity:
COMPASS SYSTEMS: Direct reading
Compasses have the following common principal features:
a magnet system housed in a bowl;
liquid damping; and
liquid expansion compensation.
Magnet System: It consists solely of a single annular cobalt-steel magnet, to which is
attached a compass card.
The suspension consists of an iridium-tipped pivot secured to the centre of the magnet
system and resting in a sapphire cup supported in a holder or stem.
Use of iridium and sapphire in combination provides hard-wearing properties and reduces
pivot friction to a minimum
Card is referenced against a lubber line fixed to the interior of the bowl and lying on or
parallel to the longitudinal axis when the compass is installed in an aircraft:
Liquid Damping
The primary reason for filling compass bowls with a liquid is to make the compass
aperiodic, i.e. will return to its equilibrium position directly without oscillating or
overshooting.
Other reasons for using a liquid are that it steadies the magnet system and gives it a
certain buoyancy, thereby reducing the weight on the pivot and so diminishing the effects
of friction and wear.
Properties of liquid should be low freezing point, low viscosity, high resistance to
corrosion, and freedom from discoloration.
Liquid Expansion Compensation
Compass liquids are subject to expansion and contraction with changes in temperature:
1. Reduction of temperature the liquid would contract and so leave an air space the
bowl thus reducing the damping effect.
2. Expansion would take place under high temperature conditions tending to force
the liquid out and resulting in leaks around bowl seals.
The compensator for this expansion and contraction takes the forrn of a flexible element
such as a bellows or a corrugated diaphragm which forms the rear part of the bowl.
The Effect of Dip on a Compass Magnet System
Dip, as the angle that a suspended magnet needle makes with the horizontal at any
particular place owing to the influence of the vertical component Z of the earth's field.
Maximum directional accuracy can only be obtained at places where dip is at, or
approaching, zero, and since this is only possible at the equator and its neighbouring
latitudes
Therefore, a compass must therefore be designed so as to neutralize the effects of the
vertical component Z over a much greater range of latitudes, enabling its magnet
system to remain horizontal or nearly so.
The most effective is to make the magnet system pendulous, i.e. to pivot it at a point
above the centre of gravity.
When the vertical component Z acts on the magnet system, the magnet system is caused
to tilt, drawing the centre of gravity of the system away from its position below the
pivot point.
Couple tends to bring the magnet system once more into the horizontal position.
Compasses are designed with a pendulosity such that the magnet system is within
approximately 20 of the true horizontal.
Compass Construction
The magnet system comprises an annular cobalt-steel magnet and a light-alloy card
mounted so as to be close to the inner face of the bowl, thereby minimizing errors in
observation due to parallax.
The card is graduated in increments of 10º, intermediate indications being estimated by
interpolation.
Observations are made against a lubber line moulded on the inner face of the bowl.
The balance of the magnet system is such that its North-seeking end is 2º down to
compensate for the angle of dip.
The bowl is moulded and is painted on the exterior with matt black enamel, except for
a small area at the front through which the card is observed. This part of the bowl is so
moulded that it has a magnifying effect on the card and its graduations.
The damping liquid is a silicone fluid (dimethysiloxane-polymer), 1½-oz being required
to fill the bowl.
The effects of deviation due to longitudinal and lateral components of aircraft magnetism
are compensated by permanent-magnet corrector assemblies secured to the compass
mounting-plate.
There are two main errors resulting from the acceleration components
Acceleration error.
Turning error
Before considering them in detail, it is useful to consider first the effect which would be
produced if a simple pendulum were to be suspended in an aircraft.
So long as a constant course and speed are maintained, the pendulum will remain for all
practical purposes in the true vertical with it‟s centre of gravity directly below the point
of suspension. If, however the aircraft turns, accelerates or decelerates, the pendulum will
cease to be vertical.
ACCELERATION ERROR
Turning Error
Turn is effectively an acceleration towards the center of curvature of the turn.
The figure below shows an aircraft during a turn from 315°M through north onto 045°M,
in the northern hemisphere and the aircraft is presently passing through 360°.
The acceleration force (towards the centre of curvature of the turn) is acting through the
pivot and the reaction to this force is acting through the centre of gravity of the magnet.
The result is that, during the turn, the magnet will swing clockwise when viewed from
above.
Consequently the compass will under-read.
Similarly turning from 045°through north onto 315°, the acceleration force and the
reaction to it will caused the magnet to swing anti-clockwise when viewed from above.
The compass will over-read during the turn this time.
On an easterly heading there will be no error because the force will act in line and not
across.
On southerly headings again there will be errors.
So turning errors are a maximum when turning through North and South.
They are zero turning through East and West.
Turning errors are a function of dip, so would be a maximum at the poles.
They will be zero on the aclinic line.
They work in the opposite sense in the Southern magnetic hemisphere.
"Lag" or "Sluggish" means that compass heading is lagging behind the aircraft
heading.
"Lead" or "Lively" means that compass heading is leading ahead of the aircraft
heading.