CHAPTER 1

THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

CHAPTER OUTLINE
AND FOCUS QUESTIONS

The First Humans

Q How did the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ, and
how did the Neolithic Revolution affect the lives of men
and women?
The Emergence of Civilization

c Nik Wheeler/CORBIS
Q What are the characteristics of civilization, and what are
some explanations for why early civilizations emerged?
Civilization in Mesopotamia
Q How are the chief characteristics of civilization evident
Ruins of the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk
in ancient Mesopotamia?
Egyptian Civilization: ‘‘The Gift of the Nile’’
Q What are the basic features of the three major periods of IN 1849, A DARING YOUNG Englishman made a hazardous
Egyptian history? What elements of continuity are there journey into the deserts and swamps of southern Iraq. Moving
in the three periods? What are their major differences? south down the banks of the Euphrates River while braving high
winds and temperatures that reached 120 degrees Fahrenheit,
CRITICAL THINKING William Loftus led a small expedition in search of the roots of civili-
Q In what ways were the civilizations of Mesopotamia and zation. As he said, ‘‘From our childhood we have been led to regard
Egypt alike? In what ways were they different? this place as the cradle of the human race.’’
Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost reaches of Iraq,
Loftus and his small group of explorers were soon overwhelmed by
what they saw. He wrote, ‘‘I know of nothing more exciting or im-
pressive than the first sight of one of these great piles, looming in
solitary grandeur from the surrounding plains and marshes.’’ One
of these piles, known to the natives as the mound of Warka, con-
tained the ruins of Uruk, one of the first cities in the world and
part of the world’s first civilization.
Southwest Asia was one area in the world where civilization
began. Although Western civilization did not yet exist, its origins
can be traced back to the ancient Near East, where people in South-
west Asia and in Egypt, in northeastern Africa, developed organized
societies, invented writing, and created the ideas and institutions
that we associate with civilization. The later Greeks and Romans,

1
who played such a crucial role in the development of Western civili-
CHRONOLOGY The First Humans
zation, were nourished and influenced by these older Near Eastern
societies. It is appropriate, therefore, to begin our story of Western Australopithecines flourished c. 2--4 million years ago
civilization with the early civilizations of Southwest Asia and Egypt. Homo erectus flourished c. 100,000--1.5 million
Before considering them, however, we must briefly examine prehis- years ago
tory and observe how human beings made the shift from hunting
Homo sapiens
and gathering to agricultural communities and ultimately to cities
Neanderthals flourished c. 100,000--30,000 B.C.
and civilization.
Homo sapiens sapiens emerged c. 200,000 B.C.

the Homo sapiens sapiens species could be found

The First Humans throughout the world. By that time, it was the only hu-
Q Focus Question: How did the Paleolithic and man species left. All humans today, be they Europeans,
Australian Aborigines, or Africans, belong to the same
Neolithic Ages differ, and how did the Neolithic
Revolution affect the lives of men and women? subspecies.

Historians rely primarily on documents to create their

The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age
pictures of the past, but no written records exist for the
prehistory of humankind. In their absence, the story of One of the basic distinguishing features of the human
early humanity depends on archaeological and, more species is the ability to make tools. The earliest tools were
recently, biological information, which anthropologists made of stone, and the term Paleolithic (Greek for ‘‘old
and archaeologists use to formulate theories about our stone’’) Age is used to designate this early period of hu-
early past. man history (c. 2,500,000--10,000 B.C.).
The earliest humanlike creatures---known as hominids--- For hundreds of thousands of years, humans relied
existed in Africa as long as three to four million years on hunting and gathering for their daily food. Paleolithic
ago. Known as Australopithecines, they flourished in East peoples had a close relationship with the world around
and South Africa and were the first hominids to make them, and over a period of time, they came to know
simple stone tools. which animals to hunt and which plants to eat. They did
A second stage in early human development occurred not know how to grow crops or raise animals, however.
around 1.5 million years ago when Homo erectus (‘‘up- They gathered wild nuts, berries, fruits, and a variety of
right human being’’) emerged. Homo erectus made use of wild grains and green plants. Around the world, they
larger and more varied tools and was the first hominid to hunted and consumed different animals, including buf-
leave Africa and to move into both Europe and Asia. falo, horses, bison, wild goats, and reindeer. In coastal
Around 250,000 years ago, a third and crucial stage in areas, fish were a rich source of nourishment.
human development began with the emergence of Homo The hunting of animals and the gathering of wild
sapiens (‘‘wise human being’’). By 100,000 B.C., two plants no doubt led to certain patterns of living. Ar-
groups of Homo sapiens had developed. One type was the chaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that
Neanderthal, whose remains were first found in the Paleolithic people lived in small bands of twenty to thirty.
Neander valley in Germany. Neanderthal remains have They were nomadic, moving from place to place to follow
since been found in both Europe and the Middle East and animal migrations and vegetation cycles. Hunting de-
have been dated to between 100,000 and 30,000 B.C. Ne- pended on careful observation of animal behavior pat-
anderthals relied on a variety of stone tools and were the terns and required a group effort for success. Over the
first early people to bury their dead. years, tools became more refined and more useful. The
The first anatomically modern humans, known as invention of the spear, and later the bow and arrow, made
Homo sapiens sapiens (‘‘wise, wise human being’’), ap- hunting considerably easier. Harpoons and fishhooks
peared in Africa between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. made of bone increased the catch of fish.
Recent evidence indicates that they began to spread Both men and women were responsible for finding
outside Africa around 70,000 years ago. Map 1.1 shows food---the chief work of Paleolithic people. Since women
probable dates for different movements, although many bore and raised the children, they generally stayed close to
of these are still unconfirmed. By 30,000 B.C., Homo the camps, but they played an important role in acquiring
sapiens sapiens had replaced the Neanderthals, who had food by gathering berries, nuts, and grains. Men hunted wild
largely become extinct, and by 10,000 B.C., members of animals, an activity that often took them far from camp.
2 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
 60˚ 20,
20,0
20
20,00
0,0
,0000
000
0– 11555,000
000
0000 6 ˚
60
25,000 yearss ag
aggo
o yea
ye earss ag go
40,0
00000
000
00 EUROPE
yeears
ars ag
ar ago
ago
go NORTH Atlantic
At
7000,00
7 0,000
,00
,0
00 yyears ago
g ASIA AMERICA
AM Ocean
30˚ 30˚
15,000–
15 000 12
12,
22,000
00000
00
yearss aggo
AFRICA
Pacific Ocean
0˚ 200,
00,
00,
00,0
,,000
00
000
00 0˚
0˚ yeears ago 60˚
60
o Indian 90˚ 180˚ 150˚ 120˚ 90˚
SOUTH
50,0
50 ,000
0000
000 A
AMERICA
Ocean yyear
arrs ag
ago
ag
30˚
AUSTRALIA 30˚

The spread of Homo sapiens sapiens

60˚ 60˚

ANTARCTICA
MAP 1.1 The Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens sapiens spread from Africa
beginning about 70,000 years ago. Living and traveling in small groups, these anatomically
modern humans were hunter-gatherers. Although groups of people advanced beyond their old
hunting grounds at a rate of only 2 or 3 miles per generation, this was enough to populate the
world in tens of thousands of years.
Q Given that some diffusion of humans occurred during ice ages, how would such climate
change affect humans and their movements, especially from Asia to Australia and Asia to
North America? View an animated version of this map or related maps at
[Link]/history/spielvogel/westcivbrief 7e

Because both men and women played important roles in southwestern France and northern Spain bear witness to
providing for the band’s survival, scientists believe that a the cultural activity of Paleolithic peoples. A cave discov-
rough equality existed between men and women. Indeed, ered in southern France in 1994 (known as the Chauvet
some speculate that both men and women made the de- Cave, after the leader of the expedition that found it)
cisions that affected the activities of the Paleolithic band. contains more than three hundred paintings of lions, oxen,
Some groups of Paleolithic peoples, especially those owls, bears, and other animals. Most of these are animals
who lived in cold climates, found shelter in caves. Over that Paleolithic people did not hunt, which suggests to
time, they created new types of shelter as well. Perhaps the some scholars that the paintings were made for religious
most common was a simple structure of wood poles or or even decorative purposes. The discoverers were over-
sticks covered with animal hides. The systematic use of whelmed by what they saw: ‘‘There was a moment of
fire, which archaeologists believe began around 500,000 ecstasy. . . . They overflowed with joy and emotion. . . .
years ago, made it possible for the caves and human- These were moments of indescribable madness.’’1
made structures to have a source of light and heat. Fire
also enabled early humans to cook their food, making it
The Neolithic Revolution (C. 10,000--4000 B.C.)
taste better, last longer, and in the case of some plants,
such as wild grain, easier to chew and digest. The end of the last ice age around 10,000 B.C. was fol-
The making of tools and the use of fire---two im- lowed by what is called the Neolithic Revolution, a
portant technological innovations of Paleolithic peoples--- significant change in living patterns that occurred in the
remind us how crucial the ability to adapt was to human New Stone Age (Neolithic is Greek for ‘‘new stone’’).
survival. But Paleolithic peoples did more than just sur- The name New Stone Age is misleading, however. Al-
vive. The cave paintings of large animals found in though Neolithic peoples made a new type of polished
T HE F IRST H UMANS 3
stone ax, this was not the major change that occurred
after 10,000 B.C.

An Agricultural Revolution The biggest change was the

shift from hunting animals and gathering plants for
sustenance (food gathering) to producing food by sys-
tematic agriculture (food production). The planting of
grains and vegetables provided a regular supply of food,
while the domestication of animals, such as sheep, goats,
cattle, and pigs, added a steady source of meat, milk, and
fibers such as wool for clothing. Larger animals could also
be used as beasts of burden. The growing of crops and the
taming of food-producing animals created a new rela-
tionship between humans and nature. Historians speak of
this as an agricultural revolution. Revolutionary change is
dramatic and requires great effort, but the ability to ac-
quire food on a regular basis gave humans greater control
over their environment. It also allowed them to give up
their nomadic ways of life and begin to live in settled
communities.
Systematic agriculture probably developed indepen-
dently between 8000 and 7000 B.C. in various parts of the
world. Different plants were cultivated in each: wheat,
barley, and lentils in the Near East; rice and millet in
southern Asia; millet and yams in western Africa; and
beans, potatoes, and corn in the Americas. The Neolithic
agricultural revolution needed a favorable environment.
In the Near East, the upland areas above the Fertile
Crescent (present-day northern Iraq and southern Tur-
key) were more conducive to systematic farming than the

c Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

river valleys. This region received the necessary rainfall
and was the home of two wild plant species (barley and
wheat) and four wild animal species (pigs, cows, goats,
and sheep) that humans eventually domesticated.

Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution The grow-

ing of crops on a regular basis gave rise to more per- Statue from Ain Ghazal. This life-size statue made of plaster, sand,
manent settlements, which historians refer to as Neolithic and crushed chalk dating from 6500 B.C. was discovered in 1984 in Ain
farming villages or towns. One of the oldest and most Ghazal, an archaeological site near Amman, Jordan. It is among the oldest
extensive agricultural villages was Çatal Hüyük, located in known statues of the human figure. Although it appears lifelike, its features
modern-day Turkey. Its walls enclosed 32 acres, and its are considered generic rather than a portrait of an individual face. The
purpose and meaning of this sculpture may never be known.
population probably reached six thousand inhabitants
during its high point from 6700 to 5700 B.C. People lived
in simple mudbrick houses that were built so close to one Molded with noticeably large breasts and buttocks, these
another that there were few streets. To get to their homes, ‘‘earth mothers’’ perhaps symbolically represented the fertility
people had to walk along the rooftops and then enter the of both ‘‘mother earth’’ and human mothers. The shrines and
house through a hole in the roof. the statues point to the role of religion in the lives of these
Archaeologists have discovered twelve cultivated Neolithic peoples.
products in Çatal Hüyük, including fruits, nuts, and three The Neolithic Revolution had far-reaching con-
kinds of wheat. Artisans made weapons and jewelry that sequences. Once people settled in villages or towns, they
were traded with neighboring people. Religious shrines built permanent houses for protection and other struc-
housing figures of gods and goddesses have been found at tures for the storage of goods. As organized communities
Çatal Hüyük, as have a number of female statuettes. stockpiled food and accumulated material goods, they
4 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
began to engage in trade. People also began to specialize increased, these societies began to develop armies and to
in certain crafts, and a division of labor developed. Pot- build walled towns and cities. By the beginning of the
tery was made from clay and baked in a fire to make it Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of
hard. The pots were used for cooking and to store grains. people in the river valleys of Southwest Asia and Egypt
Woven baskets were also used for storage. Stone tools was leading to a whole new pattern for human life.
became refined as flint blades were employed to make
sickles and hoes for use in the fields. Obsidian---a volcanic
glass that was easily flaked---was also used to create very
The Emergence of Civilization
sharp tools. In the course of the Neolithic Age, many of
the food plants still in use today began to be cultivated.
Q Focus Question: What are the characteristics of
civilization, and what are some explanations for why
Moreover, fibers from plants such as flax were used to early civilizations emerged?
make thread that was woven into cloth.
The change to systematic agriculture in the Neolithic As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups
Age also had consequences for the relationship between that developed a simple culture that enabled them to
men and women. Men assumed the primary responsi- survive. As human societies grew and developed greater
bility for working in the fields and herding animals, jobs complexity, a new form of human existence---called
that kept them away from the home. Although women civilization---came into being. A civilization is a complex
also worked in the fields, many remained behind to care culture in which large numbers of human beings share a
for the children, weave clothes, and perform other tasks number of common elements. Historians have identified
that required labor close to home. In time, as work a number of basic characteristics of civilization. These
outside the home was increasingly perceived as more include (1) an urban focus: cities became the centers of
important than work done at home, men came to play political, economic, social, cultural, and religious develop-
the more dominant role in society, a basic pattern that ment; (2) a distinct religious structure: the gods were
would persist until our own times. deemed crucial to the community’s success, and profes-
Other patterns set in the Neolithic Age also proved to sional priestly classes regulated relations with the gods;
be enduring elements of human history. Fixed dwellings, (3) new political and military structures: an organized
domesticated animals, regular farming, a division of government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative
labor, men holding power---all of these are part of the demands of the growing population, and armies were
human story. Despite all our modern scientific and organized to gain land and power and for defense; (4) a
technological progress, human survival still depends on new social structure based on economic power: while kings
the growing and storing of food, an accomplishment of and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors
people in the Neolithic Age. The Neolithic Revolution was dominated, there also existed a large group of free men
truly a turning point in human history. (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and at the very bottom,
socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing:
New Developments Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., sig- kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep
nificant technical developments began to transform the records; and (6) new forms of significant artistic and in-
Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records tellectual activity: for example, monumental architectural
to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new level of structures, usually religious, occupied a prominent place in
human control over the environment and its resources. urban environments.
Already before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered that The civilizations
certain rocks could be heated to liquefy metals embedded that developed in
in them. The metals could then be cast in molds to pro- Southwest Asia and s Harappa
du
duce tools and weapons that were more refined than stone Egypt, the fore- In iver
R
instruments. Although copper was the first metal to be runners of Western Mohenjo-Daro

made into tools, after 4000 B.C., craftspeople in western civilization, will be
Asia discovered that combining copper and tin created examined in detail INDIA
bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than in this chapter. But
copper. Its widespread use has led historians to call the civilization also de- Arabian
period from around 3000 to 1200 B.C. the Bronze Age; veloped indepen- Sea
thereafter, bronze was increasingly replaced by iron. dently in other parts 0 200 400 600 Kilom om meete
teers
rs
At first, Neolithic settlements were mere villages. But of the world. Be-
tween 3000 and 0 200 400 Miles
as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, more
complex human societies began to emerge. As wealth 1500 B.C., the valleys Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
T HE E MERGENCE OF C IVILIZATION 5
of the Indus River in India supported a flourishing civili- of Caral also devel-
Am a n R.
zation that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalayas oped a system of zo
to the coast of the Arabian Sea. Two major cities, Harappa irrigation by divert- Mo
Moche
and Mohenjo-Daro, were at the heart of this South Asian ing a river more than Chavin
ha de
d
Huantar
an r
civilization. Many written records of the Indus valley civi- a mile upstream into
lization exist, but their language has not yet been deci- their fields. PERU
phered. This Indus valley civilization carried on extensive Why early civi- Caa
Caral
Pa c i f i c Machu
ach Picchu
u
trade with cities in Southwest Asia. lizations developed

A
Ocean d

n
es Cuzco
Another river valley civilization emerged along the remains difficult to
M
Yellow River in northern China about 4,000 years ago. explain. One theory ts
.
0 250 500 750 0KKil
illom
oome
m ters
Under the Shang maintains that chal-
0 2 0 400
200 00 600
00 00 Kilom
0 ometers rs dynasty of kings, lenges forced human 0 250 500 Miless

0 2 0
200 400 M
Miillees
es
which ruled from beings to make ef- Caral, Peru
1750 to 1122 B.C., forts that resulted in
this civilization con- the rise of civilization. Some scholars have argued
R.

tained impressive that material forces, such as the growth of food sur-
ow

Anyang
A an Yellow
ll

cities with huge city pluses, made possible the specialization of labor and
Ye

Sea
Luoyan
Lu
Luo ya g
yan
walls, royal palaces, development of large communities with bureaucratic
Huai R.
and large royal organization. But the area of the Fertile Crescent (see
R.

tombs. A system Map 1.2), in which Mesopotamian civilization emerged,

e
gtz
Yan

of irrigation en- was not naturally conducive to agriculture. Abundant

Major regions of the abled this early food could be produced only with a massive human
late Shang state
Chinese civilization effort to manage the water, an undertaking that required
The Yellow River, China to maintain a pros- organization and led to civilized societies. Other his-
perous farming soci- torians have argued that nonmaterial forces, primarily
ety ruled by an aristocratic class whose major concern religious, provided the sense of unity and purpose that
was war. made such organized living possible. And some scholars
Scholars have believed for a long time that civiliza- doubt that we will ever discover the actual causes of
tion emerged only in four areas, in the fertile river valleys early civilization.
of the Tigris and
Euphrates, the Nile,
O xu

the Indus, and the

Civilization in Mesopotamia
sR

(Uzbekistan)
.

Yellow River---that
Caspian
Sea
is, in Southwest
Asia, Egypt, India,
Q Focus Question: How are the chief characteristics of
civilization evident in ancient Mesopotamia?
(Turkmenistan) and China. Recently,
however, archae- The Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and
ologists have dis- Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the ‘‘land between the
covered two other rivers.’’ The region receives little rain, but the soil of the
(Modern state names are in parentheses)
early civilizations. plain of southern Mesopotamia was enlarged and en-
0 300 600 Kilometers
One of these flour- riched over the years by layers of silt deposited by the
0 300 Miles ished in Central Asia rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates overflow
Central Asian Civilization (in what are now the their banks and deposit their fertile silt, but since this
republics of Turk- flooding depends on the melting of snows in the upland
menistan and Uzbekistan) around 4,000 years ago. People mountains where the rivers begin, it is irregular and
in this civilization built mudbrick buildings, raised sheep sometimes catastrophic. In such circumstances, farming
and goats, had bronze tools, used a system of irrigation to could be accomplished only with human intervention in
grow wheat and barley, and had a writing system. the form of irrigation and drainage ditches. A complex
Another early civilization was discovered in the Supe system was required to control the flow of the rivers and
River valley of Peru. At the center of this civilization was produce the crops. Large-scale irrigation made possible
the city of Caral, which flourished around 2600 B.C. It the expansion of agriculture in this region, and the
contained buildings for officials, apartment buildings, abundant food provided the material base for the emer-
and grand residences, all built of stone. The inhabitants gence of civilization in Mesopotamia.
6 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
MAP 1.2 The Ancient Near East. The Fertile Crescent encompassed land with access to
water. Employing flood management and irrigation systems, the peoples of the region
established civilizations based on agriculture. These civilizations developed writing, law codes,
and economic specialization.
Q What geographic aspects of the Mesopotamian city-states made conflict between them
likely? View an animated version of this map or related maps at [Link]/
history/spielvogel/westcivbrief 7e

The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia countryside, forming city-states. These city-states were
The creators of Mesopotamian civilization were the the basic units of Sumerian civilization.
Sumerians, a people whose origins remain unclear. By
3000 B.C., they had established a number of independent Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded by
cities in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, walls. Uruk, for example, occupied an area of approxi-
Uruk, Umma, and Lagash. There is evidence that the mately 1,000 acres encircled by a wall 6 miles long with
Sumerians were not the first people in the region. A defense towers located every 30 to 35 feet along the wall.
number of Sumerian agricultural and craft terms are City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both
not Sumerian in origin, indicating that the Sumerians the small flats of peasants and the larger dwellings of the
adopted some aspects of preexisting settlements. As the civic and priestly officials. Although Mesopotamia had
Sumerian cities grew larger, they came to exercise little stone or wood for building purposes, it did have
political and economic control over the surrounding plenty of mud. Mudbricks, easily shaped by hand, were
C IVILIZATION IN M ESOPOTAMIA 7
c British Museum, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library

The ‘‘Royal Standard’’ of Ur. This detail is from the ‘‘Royal Standard’’ of Ur, a box dating from around
2700 B.C. that was discovered in a stone tomb from the royal cemetery of the Sumerian city-state of Ur. The
scenes on one side of the box depict the activities of the king and his military forces. Shown in the bottom
panel are four Sumerian battle chariots. Each chariot held two men, one who held the reins and the other
armed with a spear for combat. A special compartment in the chariot held a number of spears. The charging
chariots are seen defeating the enemy. In the middle band, the Sumerian soldiers round up the captured
enemies. In the top band, the captives are presented to the king, who has alighted from his chariot and is
shown standing above all the others in the center of the panel.

left to bake in the hot sun until they were hard enough to petition to his king, ‘‘You in your judgment, you are the
use for building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably son of Anu [god of the sky]; your commands, like the
inventive with mudbricks, constructing some of the word of a god, cannot be reversed; your words, like rain
largest brick buildings in the world. pouring down from heaven, are without number.’’2 Re-
The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was gardless of their origins, kings had power---they led armies,
the temple, which was dedicated to the chief god or god- initiated legislation, supervised the building of public
dess of the city and often built atop a massive stepped works, provided courts, and organized workers for the
tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods irrigation projects on which Mesopotamian agriculture
and goddesses owned the cities, and much wealth was used depended. The army, the government bureaucracy, and
to build temples as well as elaborate houses for the priests the priests and priestesses all aided the kings in their rule.
and priestesses who served the gods. Priests and priestesses,
who supervised the temples and their property, had great Economy and Society The economy of the Sumerian
power. The temples owned much of the city land and city-states was primarily agricultural, but commerce and
livestock and served not only as the physical center of the industry became important as well. The people of Meso-
city but also its economic and political center. In fact, potamia produced woolen textiles, pottery, and metalwork.
historians believe that in the early stages of a few city- Foreign trade, which was primarily a royal monopoly, could
states, priests and priestesses may have played an impor- be extensive. Royal officials imported luxury items, such as
tant role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the gods copper and tin, aromatic woods, and fruit trees, in ex-
ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy (government change for dried fish, wool, barley, wheat, and goods pro-
by a divine authority). However, ruling power was pri- duced by Mesopotamian metalworkers. Traders traveled by
marily in the hands of worldly figures known as kings. land to the Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in
the east. The invention of the wheel around 3000 B.C. led to
Kingship Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in ori- carts with wheels that made the transport of goods easier.
gin; they believed kings derived their power from the gods Sumerian city-states probably contained four major so-
and were the agents of the gods. As one person said in a cial groups: elites, dependent commoners, free commoners,
8 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
and slaves. Elites included royal and priestly officials and and copper or Nineveh
their families. Dependent commoners included the elites’ bronze daggers. He Ashur

Tig
clients, who worked for the palace and temple estates. Free learned to divide his M

ris
Eup E
hrate S O

R
commoners worked as farmers, merchants, fishers, scribes, opponents and sub- s

.
R. P O
TA
and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or more of the due them one by Babbyyl
ylo
lo
M
lon I A
population were farmers. They could exchange their crops one. Using such Nip
Ni
Nip ipppu
ippur
pur
u
Lagash
Lag h
Lar
La
L aarrssaa
for the goods of the artisans in town markets. Slaves be- methods, he gained U
Ur
longed to palace officials, who used them mostly in control of Sumer Arabian Eridu
Perrsia
sian
building projects; temple officials, who used mostly female and Akkad and re- D e s e r t Guulf

slaves to weave cloth and grind grain; and rich landowners, unified Mesopotamia 0 200 400 Kilometers
who used them for farming and domestic work. almost to the old
0 200 Miles
borders created by
Sargon of Akkad. Hammurabi’s empire
Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia After his conquests, Sumerian civilization
As the number of Sumerian city-states grew and the states he called himself
expanded, conflicts arose as city-state fought city-state for ‘‘the sun of Babylon,
Hammurabi’s Empire
control of land and water. The fortunes of various city- the king who has
states rose and fell over the centuries. The constant wars, made the four quarters of the world subservient,’’ and
with their burning and sacking of cities, left many Su- established a new capital at Babylon, north of Akkad. He
merians in deep despair, as is evident in the words of this also built temples, defensive walls, and irrigation canals;
Sumerian poem from the city of Ur: ‘‘Ur is destroyed, bitter encouraged trade; and brought about an economic re-
is its lament. The country’s blood now fills its holes like hot vival. Indeed, Hammurabi saw himself as a shepherd to
bronze in a mold. Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our his people: ‘‘I am indeed the shepherd who brings peace,
temple is destroyed; the gods have abandoned us, like whose scepter is just. My benevolent shade was spread
migrating birds. Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.’’ over my city. I held the people of the lands of Sumer and
Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Su- Akkad safely on my lap.’’3 Hammurabi left his dynasty
merian city-states were also open to invasion. To the strong enough that it survived until the 1550s B.C., when
north of the Sumerian city-states lived the Akkadians. We the Kassites from the northeast took over.
call them a Semitic people because of the language they
spoke (see Table 1.1). Around 2340 B.C., Sargon, leader of The Code of Hammurabi Hammurabi is best remem-
the Akkadians, overran the Sumerian city-states and es- bered for his law code, a collection of 282 laws. For
tablished an empire that included most of Mesopotamia centuries, laws had regulated people’s relationships with
as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. But the one another in the lands of Mesopotamia, but only
Akkadian empire eventually disintegrated, and its end by fragments of these earlier codes survive. Although many
2100 B.C. brought a return to the system of warring city- scholars today view Hammurabi’s collection less as a code
states until Ur-Nammu of Ur succeeded in reunifying of laws and more as the attempt of Hammurabi to por-
most of Mesopotamia. But this final flowering of Sume- tray himself as the source of justice to the people, the code
rian culture collapsed with the coming of the Amorites. still gives us a glimpse of the Babylonian society of his
Under Hammurabi, the Amorites, or Old Babylonians, a time (see the box on p. 10).
large group of Semitic-speaking seminomads, created a The Code of Hammurabi reveals a society with a
new empire. system of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were
Hammurabi (1792--1750 B.C.) employed a well- severe and varied according to the social class of the victim.
disciplined army of foot soldiers who carried axes, spears, A crime against a member of the upper class (a noble) was
punished more severely than the same offense against a
member of the lower class. Moreover, the principle of ‘‘an
TABLE 1.1 Some Semitic Languages eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth’’ was fundamental to this
system of justice. This meant that punishments should fit
Akkadian Canaanitic
Arabic Hebrew
the crime: ‘‘If a freeman has destroyed the eye of a member
Aramaic Phoenician of the aristocracy, they shall destroy his eye.’’ Hammurabi’s
Assyrian Syriac code also had an impact on legal ideas in Southwest Asia
Babylonian for hundreds of years, as the following verse from the
Hebrew Bible demonstrates: ‘‘If anyone injures his neigh-
NOTE: Languages in italic type are no longer spoken. bor, whatever he has done must be done to him: fracture
C IVILIZATION IN M ESOPOTAMIA 9
 Text not available due to copyright restrictions

for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth. As he has injured woman’s place was in the home, and failure to fulfill her
the other, so he is to be injured’’ (Leviticus 24:19--20). expected duties was grounds for divorce. If she was not
Hammurabi’s code took the responsibilities of public able to bear children, her husband could divorce her, but
officials very seriously. The governor of an area and city he did have to return the dowry to her family. If his wife
officials were expected to catch burglars. If they failed to tried to leave home to engage in business, thus neglecting
do so, the officials in the district where the crime was her house, her husband could divorce her and did not
committed had to replace the lost property. If murderers have to repay the dowry. Furthermore, a wife who was a
were not found, the officials had to pay a fine to the ‘‘gadabout, . . . neglecting her house [and] humiliating her
relatives of the murdered person. husband,’’ could be drowned. We do know that in practice
The law code also furthered the proper performance not all women remained at home. Some worked in the
of work with what amounted to consumer protection fields and others in business, where they were especially
laws. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they prominent in the running of taverns.
constructed. If a house collapsed and caused the death of Women were guaranteed some rights, however. If a
the owner, the builder was put to death. If the collapse woman was divorced without good reason, she received
caused the death of the son of the owner, the son of the the dowry back. A woman could seek divorce and get her
builder was put to death. If goods were destroyed by the dowry back if her husband was unable to show that she
collapse, they had to be replaced and the house itself re- had done anything wrong. In theory, a wife was
constructed at the builder’s expense. guaranteed use of her husband’s property in the event of
The largest number of laws in the Code of Ham- his death. The mother could also decide which of her sons
murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents ar- would receive an inheritance.
ranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the Sexual relations were strictly regulated as well. Hus-
parties involved signed a marriage contract; without it, no bands, but not wives, were permitted sexual activity
one was considered legally married. The husband pro- outside marriage. A wife and her lover caught committing
vided a bridal payment, and the woman’s parents were adultery were pitched into the river, although if the
responsible for a dowry to the new husband. husband pardoned his wife, the king could pardon the
As in many patriarchal societies, women had far guilty man. Incest was strictly forbidden. If a father had
fewer privileges and rights in marriage than men. A incestuous relations with his daughter, he would be banished.
10 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
Incest between a son and mother resulted in both being ceremony of dedication included a ritual that linked the
burned. statue to the god or goddess and thus supposedly har-
Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives. nessed the power of the deity for the city’s benefit.
Obedience was duly expected: ‘‘If a son has struck his Considerable wealth was poured into the construction of
father, they shall cut off his hand.’’ If a son committed a temples and other buildings used for the residences of
serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him, priests and priestesses who helped the gods. Although the
although fathers were not permitted to disinherit their gods literally owned the city, the temple complex used
sons arbitrarily. only part of the land and rented out the remainder. The
temples dominated individual and commercial life, an in-
dication of the close relationship between Mesopotamian
The Culture of Mesopotamia religion and culture.
A spiritual worldview was of fundamental importance to The physical environment had an obvious impact
Mesopotamian culture. To the peoples of Mesopotamia, on the Mesopotamian view of the universe. Ferocious
the gods were living realities who affected all aspects of floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppres-
life. It was crucial, therefore, that the correct hierarchies sive humidity were all part of the local climate. These
be observed. Leaders could prepare armies for war, but conditions and the resulting famines easily convinced
success depended on a favorable relationship with the Mesopotamians that this world was controlled by super-
gods. This helps explain the importance of the priestly natural forces and that the days of human beings ‘‘are
class and is the reason why even the kings took great care numbered; whatever he may do, he is but wind,’’ as The
to dedicate offerings and monuments to the gods. Epic of Gilgamesh laments. In the presence of nature,
Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem
The Importance of Religion One of the most famous relates:
accounts from the ancient Near East of the creation of the
universe was the Babylonian creation epic known as the The rampant flood which no man can oppose,
Enuma Elish. The name comes from the first three words Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble,
of the first two lines of the poem: In an appalling blanket folds mother and child,
Beats down the canebrake’s full luxuriant greenery,
When on high the heavens were not yet named, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.4
And below, the earth was not called by a name.
The Mesopotamians discerned cosmic rhythms in the
The Enuma Elish tells how the god Marduk was endowed universe and accepted its order but perceived that it was
with absolute power by the other gods to do battle with not completely safe because of the presence of willful,
Tiamat, a primordial goddess who personified the forces powerful cosmic powers that they identified with gods
of watery chaos. Marduk defeats Tiamat in battle and and goddesses.
proceeds to create the universe by dividing Tiamat in two, With its numerous gods and goddesses animating all
one part becoming the heavens and the other the earth, aspects of the universe, Mesopotamian religion was
with her breasts as mountains. From her eyes came the polytheistic. The four most important deities were An,
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Enuma Elish was recited Enlil, Enki, and Ninhursaga. An was the god of the sky
during the New Year festival celebrated in honor of and hence the most important force in the universe. Since
Marduk in the city of Babylon, which the all-powerful his basic essence was authority, he was also viewed as the
god founded as an earthly residence for the gods after his source or active principle of all authority, including the
creation of the universe. earthly power of rulers and fathers alike. Enlil, god of
The Mesopotamians viewed their city-states as wind, was considered the second greatest power of the
earthly copies of a divine model and order. Each city-state visible universe. In charge of the wind and thus an ex-
was sacred because it was linked to a god or goddess. pression of the legitimate use of force, Enlil became the
Hence Nippur, the earliest center of Sumerian religion, symbol of the proper use of force on earth as well. Enki
was dedicated to Enlil, the god of wind. Moreover, located was god of the earth. Since the earth was the source of
at the heart of each city-state was a temple complex. life-giving waters, Enki was also god of rivers, wells, and
Occupying several acres, this sacred area consisted of a canals. More generally, he represented the waters of cre-
ziggurat with a temple at the top dedicated to the god or ativity and was responsible for inventions and crafts.
goddess who owned the city. The temple complex was the Ninhursaga began as a goddess associated with soil,
true center of the community. The main god or goddess mountains, and vegetation. Eventually, however, she
dwelt there symbolically in the form of a statue, and the was worshiped as a mother goddess, a ‘‘mother of all
C IVILIZATION IN M ESOPOTAMIA 11
 children,’’ who manifested her power by giving birth to their livers or other organs. Supposedly, features seen in
kings and conferring the royal insignia on them. the organs of the sacrificed animals foretold events to
Human beings’ relationship with their gods was come. One handbook predicted that if the animal organ
based on subservience since, according to Sumerian had shape x, the outcome of the military campaign would
myth, human beings were created to do the manual labor be y. Private individuals relied on cheaper divinatory
the gods were unwilling to do for themselves. Moreover, techniques. These included interpreting patterns of smoke
humans were insecure because they could never be sure from burning incense or the pattern formed when oil was
what the gods would do. But humans did make attempts poured into water. The Mesopotamian arts of divination
to circumvent or relieve their anxiety by discovering the arose out of the desire to discover the purposes of the
intentions of the gods; these efforts gave rise to the de- gods: if people could decipher the signs that foretold
velopment of the arts of divination. events, the events would be predictable, and humans could
Divination took a variety of forms. A common form, act wisely.
at least for kings and priests who could afford it, involved
killing animals, such as sheep or goats, and examining
The Cultivation of New Arts and Sciences The reali-
zation of writing’s great potential was another aspect of
Mesopotamian culture. The oldest Mesopotamian texts
date to around 3000 B.C. and were written by the Su-
merians, who used a cuneiform (‘‘wedge-shaped’’) system
of writing. Using a reed stylus, they made wedge-shaped
impressions on clay tablets, which were then baked or
dried in the sun. Once dried, these tablets were virtually
indestructible, and the several hundred thousand that
have been discovered have served as a valuable source of
information for modern scholars. Sumerian writing
evolved from drawings of physical objects to simplified
c Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

and stylized signs, leading eventually to a phonetic system

that made possible the written expression of abstract
ideas.

The Development of Cuneiform Writing. Pictured here is the

cone of Uruinimgina, an example of cuneiform writing from an early
Sumerian dynasty. The inscription announces reductions in taxes. The
table shows the development of writing from pictographic signs to
cuneiform characters.

Pictographic sign,
c. 3100 B.C.

Interpretation ?sun over ear of ?shrouded

star ?stream bull’s head bowl head + bowl lower leg
horizon barley body

Cuneiform sign,
Courtesy Andromeda Oxford Limited, Oxford, England

c. 2400 B.C.

Cuneiform sign
c. 700 B.C.
(turned through 90°)
ˆ
Phonetic value* dingir, an u4, ud a se gu4 nig2, ninda ku2 du, gin, gub lu2
water, to walk,
Meaning god, sky day, sun barley ox food, bread to eat man
seed, son to stand
*Some signs have more than one phonetic value and some sounds are represented by more than one sign; for example, u4 means the fourth sign with the phonetic value u.

12 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

 THE GREAT FLOOD
The great poem of Mesopotamian literature, The Epic of Gilga- raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned
mesh, includes an account by Utnapishtim (a Mesopotamian fore- the storm from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the flood
runner of the biblical Noah), who had built a ship and survived was stifled; I looked at the face of the world and there was si-
the flood unleashed by the gods to destroy humankind. This se- lence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea
lection recounts how the god Ea advised Utnapishtim to build a stretched as flat as a rooftop; I opened a hatch and the light fell
boat and how he came to land his boat at the end of the flood. on my face. Then I bowed low, I sat down and I wept, the tears
In this section, Utnapishtim is telling his story to Gilgamesh. streamed down my face, for on every side was the waste of water.
I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there
The Epic of Gilgamesh appeared a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the
‘‘In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world mountain of Nisir the boat held fast, she held fast and did not
bellowed like a wild bull, and the great god was aroused by the budge. . . . When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and
clamor. Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the gods in council, let her go. She flew away, but finding no resting-place she
‘The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possi- returned. Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew away but finding
ble by reason of the babel.’ So the gods agreed to exterminate man- no resting-place she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that the
kind. Enlil did this, but Ea [Sumerian Enki, god of the waters] waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and
because of his oath warned me in a dream . . . , ‘Tear down your she did not come back. Then I threw everything open to the four
house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, de- winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the
spise worldly goods and save your soul alive. Tear down your house, mountain top.’’
I say, and build a boat. . . . Then take up into the boat the seed of
all living creatures. . . .’ [Utnapishtim did as he was told, and then Q What does this selection from The Epic of Gilgamesh tell
the destruction came.] you about the relationship between the Mesopotamians and
‘‘For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and their gods? How might you explain the difference between this
tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood account and the biblical flood story in Genesis?

Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for immortality, one of humankind’s great searches, ends in
record keeping. They also produced monumental texts, complete frustration. Everlasting life, this Mesopotamian
documents that were intended to last forever, such as in- epic makes clear, is only for the gods.
scriptions etched in stone on statues and royal buildings. Mesopotamians also made outstanding achievements
Numerous texts were prepared for teaching purposes. in mathematics and astronomy. In math, the Sumerians
Schools for scribes were in operation by 2500 B.C. They were devised a number system based on 60, using combinations
necessary because much time was needed to master the cu- of 6 and 10 for practical solutions. Geometry was used to
neiform system of writing. The primary goal of scribal edu- measure fields and erect buildings. In astronomy, the Su-
cation was to produce professionally trained scribes for merians made use of units of 60 and charted the heavenly
careers in the temples and palaces, the military, and govern- constellations. Their calendar was based on twelve lunar
ment. Pupils were male and primarily from wealthy families. months and was brought into harmony with the solar year
Writing was important because it enabled a society to by adding an extra month from time to time.
keep records and maintain knowledge of previous prac-
tices and events. Writing also made it possible for people
to communicate ideas in new ways, which is especially Egyptian Civilization:
evident in Mesopotamian literary works. The most fa-
mous piece of Mesopotamian literature was The Epic of
‘‘The Gift of the Nile’’
Gilgamesh, an elaborate poem that records the exploits of
a legendary king of Uruk. Gilgamesh---wise, strong, and
Q Focus Questions: What are the basic features of the
three major periods of Egyptian history? What
perfect in body, part man, part god---befriends a hairy elements of continuity are there in the three periods?
beast named Enkidu. Together they set off in pursuit of What are their major differences?
heroic deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh experiences
the pain of mortality and embarks on a search for the Although contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, civiliza-
secret of immortality. But his efforts fail (see the tion in Egypt evolved along somewhat different lines. Of
box above), and Gilgamesh remains mortal. The desire for central importance to the development of Egyptian
E GYPTIAN C IVILIZATION : ‘‘T HE G IFT OF THE N ILE ’’ 13
 Text not available due to copyright restrictions

civilization was the Nile River. That the Egyptian people Nile was its annual flooding. The river rose in the sum-
recognized its significance is apparent in this Hymn to the mer from rains in Central Africa and the Ethiopian
Nile (also see the box above): ‘‘The bringer of food, rich in highlands, crested in Egypt in September and October,
provisions, creator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of and left a deposit of silt that enriched the soil. The
fragrance. . . . He who . . . fills the magazines, makes the Egyptians called this fertile land the ‘‘Black Land’’ because
granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who it was dark from the silt and the lush crops that grew on
makes every beloved tree to grow. . . .’’5 Egypt, like Mes- it. Beyond these narrow strips of fertile fields lay the
opotamia, was a river valley civilization. deserts (the ‘‘Red Land’’).
Unlike the floods of Mesopotamia’s rivers, the
flooding of the Nile was gradual and usually predictable,
The Impact of Geography
and the river itself was seen as life-enhancing, not life-
The Nile is a unique river, beginning in the heart of Africa threatening. Although a system of organized irrigation
and coursing northward for thousands of miles. It is the was still necessary, the small villages along the Nile could
longest river in the world. Thanks to the Nile, an area make the effort without the massive state intervention
several miles wide on both banks of the river was capable that was required in Mesopotamia. Egyptian civilization
of producing abundant harvests. The ‘‘miracle’’ of the consequently tended to remain more rural, with many
14 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
 Nile also served as a unifying factor in
Egyptian history. In ancient times,
the Nile was the fastest way to travel
through the land, making both
transportation and communication
easier. Winds from the north pushed
sailboats south, and the current of the
Nile carried them north. Often when
they headed downstream (north),
people used long poles or paddles to
propel their boats forward.
Unlike Mesopotamia, which was
subject to constant invasion, Egypt
was blessed by natural barriers that
fostered isolation, protected it from
invasion, and gave it a sense of secu-
rity. These barriers included the de-
serts to the west and east; the
cataracts (rapids) on the southern
part of the Nile, which made defense
relatively easy; and the Mediterranean
Sea to the north. These barriers,
however, were effective only when
combined with Egyptian for-
tifications at strategic locations. Nor
did they prevent the development of
trade. Indeed, there is evidence of
very early trade between Egypt and
Mesopotamia.
In essence, Egyptian geography
and topography played important
roles in the early history of the
country. The regularity of the Nile
floods and the relative isolation of the
Egyptians created a sense of security
that was accompanied by a feeling of
MAP 1.3 Ancient Egypt. Egyptian civilization centered on the life-giving water and changelessness. To the ancient Egyp-
flood silts of the Nile River, with most of the population living in Lower Egypt, where tians, when the Nile flooded each year,
the river splits to form the Nile delta. Most of the pyramids, built during the Old ‘‘the fields laugh and people’s faces
Kingdom, are clustered at the entrance to the delta. light up.’’ Unlike people in Meso-
Q How did the lands to the east and west of the river make invasions of Egypt difficult? potamia, Egyptians faced life with a
spirit of confidence in the stability of
small population centers congregated along a narrow things. Egyptian civilization was characterized by a re-
band on both sides of the Nile. About 100 miles before it markable degree of continuity over thousands of years.
empties into the Mediterranean, the river splits into two
major branches, forming the delta, a triangular-shaped
The Old and Middle Kingdoms
territory called Lower Egypt to distinguish it from Upper
Egypt, the land upstream to the south (see Map 1.3). The basic framework for the study of Egyptian history
Egypt’s important cities developed at the tip of the delta. was provided by Manetho, an Egyptian priest and his-
Even today, most of Egypt’s people are crowded along the torian who lived in the early third century B.C. He divided
banks of the Nile River. Egyptian history into thirty-one dynasties of kings. Using
The surpluses of food that Egyptian farmers grew in Manetho’s and other lists of kings, modern historians
the fertile Nile valley made Egypt prosperous. But the have divided Egyptian history into three major periods
E GYPTIAN C IVILIZATION : ‘‘T HE G IFT OF THE N ILE ’’ 15
known as the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and regular procedures had developed. Especially important
the New Kingdom. These were periods of long-term was the office of vizier, ‘‘steward of the whole land.’’ Di-
stability characterized by strong monarchical authority, rectly responsible to the king, the vizier was in charge of
competent bureaucracy, freedom from invasion, the the bureaucracy, with its numerous departments, in-
construction of temples and pyramids, and considerable cluding police, justice, river transport, and public works.
intellectual and cultural activity. But between the periods Agriculture and the treasury were the most important
of stability were intervals known as the Intermediate departments. Agriculture was, of course, the backbone of
Periods, characterized by weak political structures and Egyptian prosperity, and the treasury collected taxes,
rivalry for leadership, invasions, a decline in building which were paid in kind. A careful assessment of land and
activity, and a restructuring of society. tenants was undertaken to provide the tax base.
According to the Egyptians’ own tradition, their land For administrative purposes, Egypt was divided into
consisted initially of numerous populated areas ruled by provinces or nomes, as they were later called by the
tribal chieftains. Around 3100 B.C., the first Egyptian royal Greeks---twenty-two in Upper Egypt and twenty in Lower
dynasty, under a king called Menes, united Upper and Egypt. A governor, called by the Greeks a nomarch, was
Lower Egypt into a single kingdom. Henceforth the king head of each nome and was responsible to the king and
would be called ‘‘king of Upper and Lower Egypt,’’ and vizier. Nomarchs, however, tended to build up large
one of his symbols would be the Double Crown, com- holdings of land and power within their nomes, creating a
bining the White Crown of Upper Egypt and the Red potential rivalry with the pharaohs.
Crown of Lower Egypt. Just as the Nile served to unite
Upper and Lower Egypt physically, kingship served to The Middle Kingdom Despite the theory of divine or-
unite the two areas politically. der, the Old Kingdom eventually collapsed, ushering in a
period of disorder. Eventually, a new royal dynasty
The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom encompassed the managed to pacify all Egypt and inaugurated the Middle
third through sixth dynasties of Egyptian kings, lasting Kingdom, a new period of stability lasting from around
from around 2686 to 2181 B.C. It was an age of prosperity 2055 to 1650 B.C. Several factors contributed to its vitality.
and splendor, made visible in the construction of the The nome structure was reorganized. The boundaries of
greatest and largest pyramids in Egypt’s history. The each nome were now settled precisely, and the obligations
capital of the Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, of the nomes to the state were clearly delineated. No-
south of the delta. marchs were confirmed as hereditary officeholders but
Kingship was a divine institution in ancient Egypt with the understanding that their duties must be per-
and formed part of a universal cosmic scheme (see the box formed faithfully. These included the collection of taxes
on p. 14): ‘‘What is the king of Upper and Lower Egypt? for the state and the recruitment of labor forces for royal
He is a god by whose dealings one lives, the father and projects, such as stone quarrying.
mother of all men, alone by himself, without an equal.’’6 In The Middle Kingdom was characterized by a new
obeying their king, subjects helped maintain the cosmic concern on the part of the pharaohs for the people. In the
order. A breakdown in royal power could only mean that Old Kingdom, the pharaoh had been viewed as an inac-
citizens were offending divinity and weakening the uni- cessible god-king. Now he was portrayed as the shepherd
versal structure. Among the various titles of Egyptian kings, of his people with the responsibility to build public works
pharaoh (originally meaning ‘‘great house’’ or ‘‘palace’’) and provide for the public welfare. As one pharaoh ex-
eventually came to be the most common. pressed it, ‘‘He [a particular god] created me as one who
Although they possessed absolute power, Egyptian should do that which he had done, and to carry out that
kings were supposed to rule not arbitrarily but according which he commanded should be done. He appointed me
to set principles. The chief principle was called Ma’at, a herdsman of this land, for he knew who would keep it in
spiritual precept that conveyed the idea of truth and order for him.’’7
justice, especially right order and harmony. To ancient
Egyptians, this fundamental order and harmony had ex-
isted throughout the universe since the beginning of time.
Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt
Pharaohs were the divine instruments who maintained it Egyptian society had a simple structure in the Old and
and were themselves subject to it. Middle Kingdoms; basically, it was organized along
Although theoretically absolute in their power, in hierarchical lines with the god-king at the top. The king
practice Egyptian kings did not rule alone. Initially, was surrounded by an upper class of nobles and priests
members of the king’s family performed administrative who participated in the elaborate rituals of life that
tasks, but by the fourth dynasty, a bureaucracy with surrounded the pharaoh. This ruling class ran the
16 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
 the river, and the fertile land along its banks. The sun was
CHRONOLOGY The Egyptians
the source of life and hence worthy of worship. A sun cult
Early Dynastic Period (dynasties 1--2) c. 3100--2686 B.C. developed, and the sun god took on different forms and
Old Kingdom (dynasties 3--6) c. 2686--2181 B.C. names, depending on his specific function. He was wor-
shiped as Atum in human form and as Re, who had a
First Intermediate Period (dynasties 7--10) c. 2180--2055 B.C.
human body but the head of a falcon. The pharaoh took
Middle Kingdom (dynasties 11--12) c. 2055--1650 B.C. the title ‘‘Son of Re’’ because he was regarded as the
Second Intermediate Period (dynasties 13--17) c. 1650--1550 B.C. earthly embodiment of Re.
New Kingdom (dynasties 18--20) c. 1550--1070 B.C. River and land deities included Osiris and Isis with
Postempire Egypt (dynasties 21--31) 1070--30 B.C. their child Horus, who was related to the Nile and to the
sun as well. Osiris became especially important as a
symbol of resurrection. A famous Egyptian myth told of
government and managed its own landed estates, which the struggle between Osiris, who brought civilization to
provided much of its wealth. Egypt, and his evil brother Seth, who killed him, cut his
Below the upper classes were merchants and artisans. body into fourteen parts, and tossed them into the Nile.
Merchants engaged in active trade up and down the Nile Osiris’ faithful wife, Isis, found the pieces and, with help
as well as in town and village markets. Some merchants from other gods, restored Osiris to life. As a symbol of
also engaged in international trade; they were sent by the resurrection and as judge of the dead, Osiris took on an
king to Crete and Syria, where they obtained wood and important role for the Egyptians. By identifying with
other products. Expeditions traveled into Nubia for ivory Osiris, one could hope to gain new life, just as Osiris had
and down the Red Sea to Punt for incense and spices. done. The dead, embalmed and mummified, were placed
Egyptian artisans displayed unusually high standards of in tombs (in the case of kings, in pyramidal tombs), given
craftsmanship and beauty and produced an incredible the name of Osiris, and by a process of magical identi-
variety of goods: stone dishes; beautifully painted boxes fication became Osiris. Like Osiris, they would then be
made of clay; wooden furniture; gold, silver, and copper reborn. The flood of the Nile and the new life it brought
tools and containers; paper and rope made of papyrus; to Egypt were symbolized by Isis gathering all of Osiris’
and linen clothing. parts together and were celebrated each spring in the
The largest number of people in Egypt simply worked festival of the new land.
the land. In theory, the king owned all the land but granted Later Egyptian spiritual practice began to empha-
portions of it to his subjects. Large sections were in the size morality by stressing Osiris’ role as judge of the
possession of nobles and the temple complexes. Most of dead. The dead were asked to give an account of their
the lower classes were serfs or common people who were earthly deeds to show whether they deserved a reward.
bound to the land and cultivated the estates. They paid Other means were also employed to gain immortality.
taxes in the form of crops to the king, nobles, and priests, Magical incantations, preserved in the Book of the Dead
lived in small villages or towns, and provided military from the period of the New Kingdom, were used to
service and forced labor for building projects. ensure a favorable journey to a happy afterlife. Specific
instructions explained what to do when confronted by
the judge of the dead. These instructions had two as-
The Culture of Egypt pects. The negative confession gave a detailed list of
Egypt produced a culture that dazzled and awed its later what one had not done:
conquerors. The Egyptians’ technical achievements alone,
especially visible in the construction of the pyramids, I have not committed evil against men.
demonstrated a measure of skill unique in the world at I have not mistreated cattle.
that time. To the Egyptians, all of these achievements were I have not blasphemed a god. . . .
part of a cosmic order suffused with the presence of the I have not done violence to a poor man. . . .
divine. I have not made anyone sick. . . .
I have not killed. . . .
Spiritual Life in Egyptian Society The Egyptians had I have not caused anyone suffering. . . .
no word for religion because it was an inseparable aspect I have not had sexual relations with a boy.
of existence in the world in which they lived. The Egyp- I have not defiled myself.8
tians had a remarkable number of gods associated with
heavenly bodies and natural forces---hardly unusual in Later the supplicant made a speech listing his good ac-
view of the importance to Egypt’s well-being of the sun, tions: ‘‘I have done that which men said and that with
E GYPTIAN C IVILIZATION : ‘‘T HE G IFT OF THE N ILE ’’ 17
c British Museum, London, UK//HIP/Art Resource, NY

Osiris as Judge of the Dead. According to the Book of the Dead, after making a denial of offenses
(the ‘‘negative confession’’), the deceased experienced the ‘‘weighing of the heart.’’ Shown here is a judgment
scene from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, a royal scribe who died around 1285 B.C. Hunefer’s heart is placed
on one side of a balance scale; on the other side is the feather of Ma’at, the goddess of truth. For Hunefer,
heart and feather are of equal weight, so the god Anubis ushers him into the presence of Osiris, seated on his
throne at the right. A ‘‘swallowing monster,’’ a hybrid creature of crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus, stood ready
at the scale to devour the deceased if he failed the test.

which gods are content. . . . I have given bread to the To preserve the physical body after death, the Egyp-
hungry, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked, and a tians practiced mummification, a process of slowly drying
ferry-boat to him who was marooned. I have provided a dead body to prevent it from decomposing. Special
divine offerings for the gods and mortuary offerings for workshops, run by priests, performed this procedure,
the dead.’’9 primarily for the wealthy families who could afford it.
According to Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian
The Pyramids One of the great achievements of Egyp- (see Chapter 3) who visited Egypt around 450 B.C., ‘‘The
tian civilization, the building of pyramids, occurred in the most refined method is as follows: first of all they draw
time of the Old Kingdom. Pyramids were not built in out the brain through the nostrils with an iron
isolation but as part of a larger complex dedicated to the hook. . . . Then they make an incision in the flank with
dead---in effect, a city of the dead. The area included a a sharp Ethiopian stone through which they extract all
large pyramid for the king’s burial, smaller pyramids for the internal organs.’’10 The liver, lungs, stomach, and
his family, and mastabas, rectangular structures with flat intestines were placed in four special jars that were put
roofs, as tombs for the pharaoh’s noble officials. The in the tomb with the mummy. The priests then covered
tombs were well prepared for their residents. The rooms the corpse with a natural salt that absorbed the body’s
were furnished and stocked with numerous supplies, in- water. Later, they filled the body with spices and
cluding chairs, boats, chests, weapons, games, dishes, and wrapped it with layers of linen soaked in resin. At the
a variety of foods. The Egyptians believed that human end of the process, which took about seventy days, a
beings had two bodies, a physical one and a spiritual one, lifelike mask was placed over the head and shoulders of
which they called the ka. If the physical body was properly the mummy, which was then sealed in a case and placed
preserved (that is, mummified) and the tomb furnished in its tomb in a pyramid.
with all the various objects of regular life, the ka could The largest and most magnificent of all the pyramids
return and continue its life despite the death of the was built under King Khufu. Constructed at Giza around
physical body. 2540 B.C., this famous Great Pyramid covers 13 acres,
18 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
 function. They were supposed to aid the
journey of the deceased into the afterworld.
Egyptian art was also formulaic. Artists
and sculptors were expected to observe a
strict canon of proportions that determined
both form and presentation. This canon gave
Egyptian art a distinctive appearance for
thousands of years. Especially characteristic
was the convention of combining the profile,
semiprofile, and frontal views of the human
body in relief work and painting in order to
represent each part of the body accurately.
The result was an art that was highly stylized
yet still allowed distinctive features to be
displayed.
c Will and Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Writing in Egypt emerged during the first

two dynasties. The Greeks later labeled Egyp-
tian writing hieroglyphics, meaning ‘‘priest
carvings’’ or ‘‘sacred writings.’’ Hieroglyphs
were symbols that depicted objects and had a
sacred value at the same time. Although hi-
eroglyphs were later simplified into two scripts
for writing purposes, they never developed
into an alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphs were
The Pyramids at Giza. The three pyramids at Giza, across the Nile River from Cairo,
initially carved in stone, but later the two
are the most famous in Egypt. At the rear is the largest of the three pyramids, the Great
Pyramid of Khufu. Next to it is the pyramid of Khafre. In the foreground is the smaller simplified scripts were written on papyrus, a
pyramid of Menkaure standing behind the even smaller pyramids for the pharaohs’ wives. paper made from the papyrus reed that grew
Covering almost 13 acres, the Great Pyramid of Khufu is immense. It is estimated that the along the Nile. Most of the ancient Egyptian
Great Pyramid contains 2.3 million stone blocks, each weighing about 2.5 tons. literature that has come down to us was
written on papyrus rolls and wooden tablets.

measures 756 feet at each side of its base, and stands

Disorder and a New Order: The New Kingdom
481 feet high. Its four sides are almost precisely oriented
to the four points of the compass. The interior included a The Middle Kingdom was brought to an end by a new
grand gallery to the burial chamber, which was built of period of instability. An incursion into the delta region by
granite with a lidless sarcophagus for the pharaoh’s body. a people known as the Hyksos initiated this second age of
The Great Pyramid still stands as a visible symbol of the disorder. The Hyksos, a Semitic-speaking people, infil-
power of Egyptian kings and the spiritual conviction that trated Egypt in the seventeenth century B.C. and came to
underlay Egyptian society. No later pyramid ever matched dominate much of Egypt. However, the presence of the
its size or splendor. But an Egyptian pyramid was not just Hyksos was not entirely negative for Egypt. They taught
the king’s tomb; it was also an important symbol of royal the Egyptians to make bronze for use in new agricultural
power. It could be seen for miles as a visible reminder of tools and weapons. The Hyksos also brought new aspects
the glory and might of the ruler, who was a living god of warfare to Egypt, including the horse-drawn war
on earth. chariot, a heavier sword, and the compound bow. Even-
tually, a new line of pharaohs---the eighteenth dynasty---
Art and Writing Commissioned by kings or nobles for made use of the new weapons to throw off Hyksos
use in temples and tombs, Egyptian art was largely domination, reunite Egypt, establish the New Kingdom
functional. Wall paintings and statues of gods and kings (c. 1550--1070 B.C.), and launch the Egyptians along a new
in temples served a strictly spiritual purpose. They were militaristic and imperialistic path. During the period of
an integral part of the performance of ritual, which was the New Kingdom, Egypt became the most powerful state
thought necessary to preserve the cosmic order and hence in the Middle East. The Egyptians occupied Canaan and
the well-being of Egypt. Likewise, the mural scenes and Syria but permitted local princes to rule under Egyptian
sculptured figures found in the tombs had a specific control. Egyptian armies also moved westward into Libya
E GYPTIAN C IVILIZATION : ‘‘T HE G IFT OF THE N ILE ’’ 19
 IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE
The Egyptian Diet. The diet of the upper and lower classes in ancient is seen standing in his boat using his throwstick to hunt birds. He
Egypt varied considerably. Meat and fowl, including beef, goat, pork, holds three birds in his right hand while a cat retrieves two in its
goose, and pigeons, were on the tables of the rich. Although done for claws and holds the wings of another in its teeth. The basic diet of the
sport as well as food, hunting waterfowl in the stands of papyrus reeds poor consisted chiefly of bread, and the baking of bread was an im-
that grew along the river’s banks was a favorite pastime of the Egyp- portant task in all households. The tomb painting on the right, from
tian upper classes. Shown on the left is a hunting scene from the eigh- the eighteenth-dynasty tomb of Mennah, shows two men carrying
teenth-dynasty tomb of Nebamun in Thebes. Nebamun, a nobleman, grain while slave girls fight over leftovers in the background.
c Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY

c Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

and expanded Egypt’s border to the south by conquering to the loss of both Syria and Palestine. Akhenaten’s
the African kingdom of Nubia. changes were soon undone after his death by those who
The eighteenth dynasty was not without its own influenced his successor, the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen
troubles, however. Amenhotep IV (c. 1364--1347 B.C.) in- (1347--1338 B.C.). Tutankhamen returned the government
troduced the worship of Aten, god of the sun disk, as the to Thebes and restored the old gods. The Aten experi-
chief god and pursued his worship with great enthusiasm. ment had failed to take hold, and the eighteenth dynasty
Changing his own name to Akhenaten (‘‘Servant of Aten’’), itself came to an end in 1333 B.C.
the pharaoh closed the temples of other gods and especially The nineteenth dynasty managed to restore Egyptian
endeavored to lessen the power of Amon-Re and his power one more time. Under Rameses II (c. 1279--1213
priesthood at Thebes. Akhenaten strove to reduce the B.C.), the Egyptians regained control of Palestine but were
priests’ influence by replacing Thebes as the capital of Egypt unable to reestablish the borders of their earlier empire.
with Akhetaten (‘‘Horizon of Aten’’), a new city located at New invasions in the thirteenth century by the ‘‘Sea
modern Tell el-Amarna, 200 miles north of Thebes. Peoples,’’ as the Egyptians called them, destroyed Egyp-
Akhenaten’s attempt at religious change failed. It was tian power in Palestine and drove the Egyptians back
too much to ask Egyptians to ignore their traditional within their old frontiers. The days of Egyptian empire
ways and beliefs, especially since they saw the destruction were ended, and the New Kingdom itself expired with the
of the old gods as subversive of the very cosmic order on end of the twentieth dynasty in 1070 B.C. For the next
which Egypt’s survival and continuing prosperity de- thousand years, despite periodical revivals of strength,
pended. Moreover, the priests at Thebes were unalterably Egypt was dominated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and
opposed to the changes, which diminished their influence finally Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the
and power. At the same time, Akhenaten’s preoccupation Great (see Chapter 4). In the first century B.C., Egypt
with religion caused him to ignore foreign affairs and led became a province in Rome’s mighty empire.
20 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
 Text not available due to copyright restrictions

Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Women’s property and inheritance remained in their
Family and Marriage hands, even in marriage. Although most careers and public
offices were closed to women, some did operate businesses.
Ancient Egyptians had a very positive attitude toward Peasant women worked long hours in the fields and at
daily life on earth and followed the advice of the wisdom numerous domestic tasks, especially weaving cloth. Upper-
literature, which suggested that people marry young and class women could function as priestesses, and a few
establish a home and family. Monogamy was the general queens even became pharaohs in their own right. Most
rule, although a husband was allowed to keep additional famous was Hatshepsut in the New Kingdom. She served
wives if his first wife was childless. Pharaohs were entitled as regent for her stepson Thutmosis III but assumed the
to harems; the queen, however, was acknowledged as the throne for herself and remained in power until her death.
Great Wife, with a status higher than that of the other Hatshepsut’s reign was a prosperous one, as is espe-
wives. The husband was master in the house, but wives cially evident in her building activity. She is most famous
were very much respected and in charge of the household for the temple dedicated to herself at Deir el Bahri on the
and education of the children. From a book of wise west bank of the Nile at Thebes. As pharaoh, Hatshepsut
sayings came this advice: sent out military expeditions, encouraged mining, fostered
If you are a man of standing, you should found your house- agriculture, and sent a trading expedition to lower Africa.
hold and love your wife at home as is fitting. Fill her belly; Hatshepsut’s official statues sometimes show her clothed
clothe her back. Ointment is the prescription for her body. and bearded like a king. She was referred to as ‘‘His
Make her heart glad as long as you live. She is a profitable
field for her lord. You should not contend with her at law,
Majesty.’’ That Hatshepsut was aware of her unusual po-
and keep her far from gaining control. . . . Let her heart be sition is evident from an inscription she had placed on
soothed through what may accrue to you; it means keeping one of her temples. It read, ‘‘Now my heart turns to and
her long in your house.11 fro, in thinking what will the people say, they who shall see

E GYPTIAN C IVILIZATION : ‘‘T HE G IFT OF THE N ILE ’’ 21

my monument in after years, and shall speak of what I show the close and affectionate relationship parents had
have done.’’ with both sons and daughters. Although marriages were
Marriages were arranged by parents. The primary arranged, some of the surviving love poems from ancient
concerns were family and property, and clearly the chief Egypt indicate an element of romance in some marriages.
purpose of marriage was to produce children, especially Marriages could and did end in divorce, which was al-
sons (see the box on p. 21). From the New Kingdom came lowed, apparently with compensation for the wife. Adul-
this piece of wisdom: ‘‘Take to yourself a wife while you are tery, however, was strictly prohibited, and punishments
a youth, that she may produce a son for you.’’12 Daughters were severe, especially for women, who could have their
were not slighted, however. Numerous tomb paintings noses cut off or be burned at the stake.

CONCLUSION

Although early civilizations emerged in different parts of the world, peoples in Western civilization would provide different answers
the foundations of Western civilization were laid by the Mesopo- from those of the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, it was they who
tamians and Egyptians. They developed cities and struggled with first posed the questions, gave answers, and wrote them down. At
the problems of organized states. They developed writing to keep the same time, although the concept of the West did not yet exist,
records and created literature. They constructed monumental the Mesopotamians’ and Egyptians’ development of writing and a
architecture to please their gods, symbolize their power, and system of numbers, their creation of law codes, and their practice of
preserve their culture for all time. They developed new political, different roles based on gender would all eventually influence what
military, social, and religious structures to deal with the basic became Western civilization.
problems of human existence and organization. These first literate By the middle of the second millennium B.C., the creative
civilizations left detailed records that allow us to view how they impulse of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations was
grappled with three of the fundamental problems that humans have beginning to wane. The invasion of the Sea Peoples around 1200 B.C.
pondered: the nature of human relationships, the nature of the ushered in a whole new pattern of petty states and new kingdoms
universe, and the role of divine forces in the cosmos. Although later that would lead to the largest empires the ancient Near East had seen.

TIMELINE

5000 B.C. 2500 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1500 B.C. 1000 B.C.

Mesopotamia Code of Hammurabi

Early Dynastic Age of Sumerian city-states
Beginning of cuneiform Babylonian kingdom

Egypt Great Pyramid Akhenaten’s

Egypt—Middle Kingdom religious
upheaval
Emergence of
Egyptian civilization Egypt—Old Kingdom Egypt—New Kingdom

India
Indus valley civilization
China
Shang dynasty
Central Asia
Central Asian civilization
South America
Caral, Supe River valley of Peru

22 C H A P T E R 1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING the Dawn of History (London, 1992), and S. Pollack, Ancient
Mesopotamia (Cambridge, 1999). A beautifully illustrated survey can
The Ancient World For a beautifully illustrated introduction
be found in M. Roaf, Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient
to the ancient world, see Past Worlds: The Times Atlas of Archaeology
Near East (New York, 1996). The world of the Sumerians has been
(Maplewood, N.J., 1988), written by an international group of scholars.
well described in S. N. Kramer, The Sumerians (Chicago, 1963) and
A detailed history of the ancient world with chapters written by
History Begins at Sumer (New York, 1959). See also the summary of
different specialists is available in the twelve volumes of The
the historical and archaeological evidence by H. Crawford, Sumer and
Cambridge Ancient History, now in its third edition. Less detailed but
the Sumerians, 2d ed. (Cambridge, 2004). The fundamental work on
sound surveys can be found in L. De Blois and R. J. van der Spek, An
the spiritual perspective of ancient Mesopotamia is T. Jacobsen, The
Introduction to the Ancient World, trans. S. Mellor (London, 1997),
Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion (New
and S. W. Bauer, The History of the Ancient World (New York, 2007).
Haven, Conn., 1976), but also see J. Bottéro, Religion in Ancient
The following works are of considerable value in examining the
Mesopotamia (Chicago, 2001). On daily life, see S. Bertman,
prehistory of humankind: S. Mithen, After the Ice: A Global Human
Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (New York, 2003).
History, 20,000--5000 B.C.. (Cambridge, Mass., 2006); N. Wade, Before
Ancient Egypt For a good introduction to ancient Egypt, see
the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors (New York,
the beautifully illustrated works by M. Hayes, The Egyptians (New
2006); and D. Lewis-Williams and D. Pearce, Inside the Neolithic
York, 1997); D. P. Silverman, ed., Ancient Egypt (New York, 1997);
Mind (London, 2005). For studies of the role of women in prehistory,
and M. Millman, Imagining Egypt (New York, 2007). Other general
see E. Barber, Women’s Work: The First 20,000 Years (New York,
surveys include I. Shaw, ed., The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
1994), and J. M. Adovasio, O. Soffer, and J. Page, The Invisible Sex:
(New York, 2000), and D. J. Brewer, Ancient Egypt: Foundations of
Uncovering the True Roles of Women in Prehistory (New York, 2007).
a Civilization (New York, 2005), on Egypt before the period of the
The Ancient Near East Excellent reference tools on the ancient
Old Kingdom. On Akhenaten and his religious changes, see D. P.
Near East can be found in P. Bienkowski and A. Milward, eds.,
Silverman et al., Akhenaten and Tutankhamun: Revolution and
Dictionary of the Ancient Near East (Philadelphia, 2000), and G. Leick,
Restoration (New York, 2006). Egyptian religion is covered in
Who’s Who in the Ancient Near East (London, 1999). General surveys
S. Quirke, Ancient Egyptian Religion (London, 1992). On Egyptian
of Mesopotamia and Egypt include A. B. Knapp, The History and
culture in general, see J. A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt
Culture of Ancient Western Asia and Egypt (Chicago, 1987), and H. J.
(Chicago, 1956). An important study on women is G. Robins, Women
Nissen, The Early History of the Ancient Near East, 9000--2000 B.C.
in Ancient Egypt (Cambridge, Mass., 1993). Daily life can be examined
(Chicago, 1988). For a detailed survey, see A. Kuhrt, The Ancient Near
in E. Strouhal, Life of the Ancient Egyptians (Norman, Okla., 1992).
East, c. 3000--330 B.C., 2 vols. (London, 1995). A brief recent survey can
be found in M. van de Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East,
ca. 3000--323 B.C., 2d ed. (Oxford, 2006). H. W. F. Saggs, Babylonians
WESTERN CIVILIZATION RESOURCES
(Norman, Okla., 1995), and G. Leick, The Babylonians (London, 2003),
provide an overview of the peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. On the
economic and social history of the ancient Near East, see D. C. Snell, Visit the Web site for Western Civilization: A Brief History to ac-
Life in the Ancient Near East (New Haven, Conn., 1997). cess study aids such as Flashcards, Critical Thinking Exercises,
and Chapter Quizzes:
Ancient Mesopotamia General works on ancient Mesopotamia
[Link]/history/spielvogel/westcivbrief 7e
include J. N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at

C ONCLUSION 23
24