AE-2150 MPMM

Module 4: Defect in Solid

Callister Chapter 4 and 7

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 Defects in Solids
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the solidification mechanisms?

• What types of defects arise in solids?

• Can the number and type of defects be varied

and controlled?

• How do defects affect material properties?

• Are defects undesirable?

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 Imperfections in Solids
• Solidification- result of casting of molten material
2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure

• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid Adapted from Fig.4.14 (b), Callister 7e.

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

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 Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries

• regions between grains

• transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
• slightly disordered [Link]

• low density in grain

boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
Grain boundary of polycrystalline graphene
[Link]

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 Polycrystalline Materials : Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)

heat
heat flow
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
T) near wall
Adapted from Fig. 4.12, Callister 7e.
heat
flow
Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.
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 Imperfections in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal

• Vacancies
• Self-Interstitial
• Interstitial (Alloy)
• Substitutional (Alloy) • Dislocations
Point defects Line defects

Type of
Imperfection

Area defects Volume defects

• Grain Boundaries • Pores

Why are they important?

Many important properties of a materials are sensitive to the presence of imperfections 7
 Point Defects
1. Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
Distortion
of planes

2. Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-interstitial
Distortion
of planes

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 Point Defects
Two outcomes is possible if impurity is added to the host material (Alloying)
and the product is called a solid solution

3. Interstitials (Alloy) 4. Substitutional (Alloy)

.(e.g., C in Fe) (e.g., Cu in Ni)

Solid solution can be treated as random distribution of point defects

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 Point Defects

• Impurity atoms fills interstices

• For metal the interstices is relatively
3. Interstitials (Alloy)
small so the diameter of impurity
must be small
Ex : Radius of C = 0.071 nm; Fe = 0.124
nm

• Maximum allowable concentration

.(e.g., C in Fe) of interstitial is less than 10%
For C in Fe, Maximum concentration is
about 2%

• Interstitial atoms induce some

lattice strains
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 Point Defects

• Impurity atoms replace host

4. Substitutional (Alloy)
• The properties of the impurity and
the host is comparable
• •Example of substitutional solid
solution is Cu in Ni
Radius of Cu = 0.128 nm ; Ni = 0.125 nm
(e.g., Cu in Ni)
both have FCC crystal structure
electronegativity Cu = 1.9 and Ni = 1.8
valence Cu = +1 and +2 and Ni = +2

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 Line Defects
Linear Defects (Dislocations) Edge dislocation
Are one-dimensional defects
around which atoms are
misaligned
• Edge dislocation:
– extra half-plane of atoms
inserted in a crystal
structure
– b  to dislocation line
• Screw dislocation: Screw dislocation
– spiral planar ramp resulting
from shear deformation
– b  to dislocation line

Burger’s vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

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 Line Defects
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b (b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister 7e.

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 Line Defects
Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations

Mixed

Edge

Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister 7e.

Screw
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 Line Defects
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.

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 Line Defects
Dislocations:
• line defects  Dislocations
• When dislocations move to the surface  produce
permanent (plastic) deformation.
• Slip – Plastic deformation produced by dislocation motion

• before deformation

• after tensile elongation

slip steps
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 Slip System (FCC)
• Dislocation motion not the same degree of ease on all
crystallographic planes. Usually on a preferred plane  SLIP
PLANE (111)
• Slip direction to direct the movement of the dislocation <110>
• Slip System  combination of slip plane and slip direction
Slip System – Metals
 Planar Defects in Solids
Grain Boundary

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

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 Planar Defects in Solids

• One case is a twin boundary (plane)

– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin
plane.

Adapted from Fig. 4.9, Callister 7e.

• Stacking faults
– For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
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 Volume Defects

• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new

phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.

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 Microscopic Examination

• Crystallites (grains) and grain boundaries.

Vary considerably in size. Can be quite large
– ex: Large single crystal of quartz or diamond or Si
– ex: Aluminum light post or garbage can - see the
individual grains

• Crystallites (grains) can be quite small (mm

or less) – necessary to observe with a
microscope.

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 Optical Microscopy
• Useful up to 2000X magnification.
• Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
• Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

crystallographic planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.13(b) and (c), Callister
7e. (Fig. 4.13(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

0.75mm
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 Optical Microscopy

Grain boundaries... polished surface

• are imperfections,
• are more susceptible surface groove
to etching, grain boundary
(a)
• may be revealed as
dark lines,
• change in crystal
orientation across
boundary.
Adapted from Fig. 4.14(a)
Fe-Cr alloy and (b), Callister 7e.

(b)

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 Optical Microscopy

• Polarized light
– metallographic scopes often use polarized
light to increase contrast
– Also used for transparent samples such as
polymers

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 Microscopy
Optical resolution ca. 10-7 m = 0.1 m = 100 nm
For higher resolution need higher frequency
– X-Rays? Difficult to focus.
– Electrons
• wavelengths ca. 3 pm (0.003 nm)
– (Magnification - 1,000,000X)
• Atomic resolution possible
• Electron beam focused by magnetic lenses.

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 Summary
• Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
• Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)

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