Introduction and Preparations

Block Course Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics

Markus Pössel
Haus der Astronomie and Max Planck Institute for Astronomy

Heidelberg University, Spring Semester 2024

What this part of the course is about 1

Introduction to cosmology and galaxies

Cosmology:
Fairly simple basis: homogeneous models (FLRW)
Physics-based in hot Big Bang phase (thermodynamics)
structure formation (homogeneous → inhomogeneous)

Galaxies:
Bewildering variety of data, concepts, examples
Eventual goal: Understand how the diversity of galaxies comes about
Guidelines: Basic concepts, properties, morphology, spectra

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What this part of the course is about 2

Overall goal of this course: understand basic concepts, learn the basic vocabulary

If you pick up a paper on the subject, you should be able to

Understand the context and motivation
Superficially understand the arguments made
Later: Intelligently listen to talks outside your own specialty

More details and differentiation plus deeper digging can come later, in:
MVASTRO3: Galactic and Extragalactic Astronomy
MVASTRO4 or MKTP5: Cosmology
MVSpec “Observing the Big Bang”

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Cosmology and galaxies

basic concepts
dynamics
FLRW-Cosmology (homogeneous)
distances in cosmology
hot Big Bang phase
clumping

Structure formation with dark matter

gas in halos
basics, morphology, spectra
stellar dynamics, scaling relations
Galaxies galaxy types, AGN, groups/clusters
gravitational lensing
galaxy evolution

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 Distance scales

Humans Planets Galaxies

Cats
Cities Stars
Insects

10−15 ly 10−10 ly 10−5 ly 100 ly 105 ly 1010 ly

100 m 105 m 1010 m 1015 m 1020 m 1025 m

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Fundamental observational facts about our universe

Some fundamental observational facts cosmological models need to accommodate:

Olbers’ Paradox
Age determination for oldest objects
Fundamental matter content, including dark matter
Cosmography (needs distance measurements) ⇒ on-average homogeneity
Hubble-Lemaître-Relation

. . . and of course that is not all, but it’s a start!

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 Olbers’ paradox (1823)

Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers (1758-1840) and others:

The universe cannot be infinite, infinitely old, and stationary

If it were:
every line-of-sight would end in a star
area within given solid angle goes with r 2
flux goes with 1/r 2

⇒ every patch of sky as bright as the Sun’s surface!

(Dust/absorption? If stationary, thermal equilibrium would give dust

the same surface brightness!)

In-depth analysis: E. Harrison, Darkness at night. Harvard University Press 1987

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 Age determinations 1: lower age limit from metal-poor stars

Metal-poor halo star HE 1523-0901:

Heavier elements from first
Type II SN
Calculate initial r-process
elements abundances
U-238 (Z = 92) vs. Th-232
(Z = 90) similar, promising
Half-life U 4.5 Gyr, Th 14 Gyr
Different chronometers:
▶ U against all r elements
▶ Th against all r elements
▶ U against T
Resulting age: 13.2 ± 0.7 Gyr Fig. 2 (left part) from Frebel, Christlieb et al. 2007

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Age determination 2: Stellar evolution

14
For star clusters:

anch
horizontal branch
Create color-magnitude diagram

nt br
16

ia
main-sequence turn-off (MSTO)

red g
L ∼ M 3.5 and τ ∼ M /L ⇒ τ ∼ M −2.5 18
ts
Oldest globular clusters: MSTO gian
sub

V
13.2 ± 2 Gyr (Carretta et al. 2000)
20

ma
in
seq
22

ue
nc
e
Diagram on the right after Fig. 7
24
in Durrell & Harris 1993
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
B-V
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 Matter in the universe: luminous vs. dark

1985ApJ...295..305V

R. Williams (STScI), the Hubble Deep Field Team and NASA van Albada et al. 1985

Luminous baryonic matter: viscosity, Interacts only via gravity: dark matter,
electromagnetic interactions, hot Big Bang backbone for structure formation, galaxies
phase, star formation. . . grow in dark matter halos
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Cosmography: Mapping our universe in 3D

Distance determinations beyond parallax: standard objects:

Measurable intrinsic property

distance-dependence
(geometry)

observable apparent property

Standard candle: luminosity ⇒ apparent brightness

Standard ruler: size ⇒ angular size
Standard siren: gw amplitude ⇒ observed amplitude

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 Standard candle: from luminosity to flux

Luminosity = energy radiated per unit time

Constant luminosity: energy per unit time flowing

through spherical shell with radius d is L

Isotropic radiation: fraction of energy that passes

through detector area A in unit time is

A
∆E = ·L
4πd 2
which is equal to the area A times the flux F,

L
F=
4πd 2

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Standard candles

Standard candle: object, where we know/can deduce L , measure the flux F, calculate
r
L
d=
4πF

Link with astronomical magnitude system:

!
F1
m1 − m2 = −2.5 · log
F2

leads to distance modulus

L /(4πd 2 )
! !
d
m − M = −2.5 · log = 5 · log
L /(4π[10 pc]2 ) 10 pc

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Standard candles example 1: Cepheids

Cepheids = pulsating phase of

medium-mass stars
Relation pulsation period and
maximal/minimal/avg. L
Realized first heuristically by Henrietta
Swan Leavitt, 1908–1912
Crucial for first extra-galactic distances
(Hubble)
Modern standard candles often use
extinction-corrected magnitudes
(e.g. Wesenheit magnitudes)

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Standard candles example 2: Supernovae vom Typ Ia

Perlmutter et al. 1998, Supernova Cosmology Project

SN Ia: binary with White Dwarf ⇒ H captured ⇒ thermonuclear explosion

Phillips relation: fading rate (peak vs. 15 days later) allows calibration
Standard tool for most distant extragalactic distance measurements
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Large-scale distribution of galaxies: homogenous-ish?

Ceph
3000 TF
FP
SN Ia
2000

1000
Y in Mpc

1000

2000

3000
4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
X in Mpc
Not that easy: 26441 data points for galaxies from NED-D distance catalogue
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Systematic redshift-distance relation: Hubble-Lemaître relation

Hubble 1929: “A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae” in PNAS 15(3), p. 168ff.
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Fundamental observational facts about our universe

Some fundamental observational facts cosmological models need to accommodate:

Olbers’ Paradox
Age determination for oldest objects
Cosmography (needs distance measurements) ⇒ on-average homogeneity
Hubble-Lemaître-Relation

. . . so where do we go from here?

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Simplified homogeneous, isotropic universe
Simplest model: homogeneous, isotropic universe

Cosmological principle: The universe presents the same aspect from every point except
for local irregularities (Bondi 1952)
⇔ Copernican principle: We occupy no special location in the universe.

Two complementary views of the model we will use:

“Galaxy dust” with separate, pointlike galaxies Continuum with uniform density ρ
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 Our framework for model-building: general relativity

Dominant large-scale force in the cosmos: gravity!

(Electromagnetism much stronger, but astronomical objects

are electrically neutral.)

Modern description of gravity:

Einstein’s general theory of relativity (1915)

Gravity linked to distortion of space and time

Matter tells spacetime how to curve,

spacetime tells matter how to move Foto via Library of Congress

(John Wheeler)

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General relativity

What we will use later on:

Equivalence principle: In free fall, special relativity is valid locally
Newtonian limit: Small tidal forces are Newtonian
Energy-momentum: Source terms contain energy, pressure

Tidal forces around source

Equivalence principle

These are general relativity’s “interfaces” with its precursor theories:

special relativity and Newtonian gravity
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General relativity: Equivalence principle

Part of gravity “vanishes” if an observer lets go, falls freely (left)

No local difference to gravity-free situation (right):

laws of special relativity hold

Famous example: astronauts on the International Space Station!

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 What remains even in free fall? Tidal forces!

External view: View from inside the cabin:

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What do tidal forces do? 1/2
Tidal forces distort swarms of free-falling particles:
direction effects and distance effects

If attracting mass is below:

becomes

with
V̈ t =0
=0
(Newtonian calculation, still valid in general relativity)
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What do tidal forces do? 2/2

Attracting central mass: particles initially at rest accelerate inwards

Newton:

V̈
= −4πG ρ,
V t =0

with ρ ≡ M /V average density within sphere

M Einstein’s equation (simplest form):

V̈
= −4πG (ρ + [px + py + pz ]/c 2 )
V t =0

where ρ now includes energy plus extra pressure terms

(must-read: Baez & Bunn 2005)

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 Cosmological models in general relativity, done properly

From homogeneity, isotropy, derive Ansatz for the metric:

dr 2
" #
2 2 2
ds = −c dt + a (t ) 2
+ r dΩ , dΩ = dϑ2 + sin2 ϑ dφ2
2
1 − Kr 2

From metric follows:

light propagation
free-fall properties
geometry of space
Einstein’s field equation(s)

8πG
Gµν = Tµν
c4
. . . yield Friedmann equations for a (t ) in terms of matter content
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Cosmological models in general relativity: short-cut version

Introduce scale-factor expansion from homogeneity/isotropy

Galaxy in an expanding universe are in free fall
⇒ equivalence principle e.g. for light propagation
Density is low ⇒ use Newtonian gravity as approximation
By hand, substitute ρ → ρ + 3p /c 2 for relativistic source term

This will give us the right relations and equations for an expanding universe except the
connection between energy density and local geometry (spherical, flat, hyperbolical)

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Helpful text books

For Chapters 1 to 6: Lecture notes are in the Moodle!

Liddle, Andrew R.: An introduction to modern cosmology. Wiley 2015

Ryden, Barbara: Introduction to cosmology. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press 2017

Schneider, Peter: Extragalactic astronomy and cosmology: an introduction, Springer 2006

Sparke, Linda S. & John S. Gallagher, III: Galaxies in the Universe. An Introduction. 2nd
edition. Cambridge University Press 2007

. . . all of which are in the Lehrbuchsammlung Neuenheimer Feld

For the homogeneous cosmology part: Markus Pössel, The expanding universe: an
introduction, arXiv:1712.10315

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