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 General topics

What are the early origins of agriculture?

Narmada valley – gatherers
Sulaiman and Kirthar hills (Afghanistan), Mehrgarh (Pak) – first crops by men and women -wheat and
barley (8000 yago), cotton (7000 yago), domestication of sheep and cattle (12000 yago)
Garo hills (along Brahmaputra, North East) – Agriculture
Vindhyas – Rice was first grown

How did India derive its name?

India – comes from Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
2500 yago, Irani and Greeks called Hindos/Indos and land east to it became India.
Bharata - people living in the north west – Rig Veda

What are the sources of past?

Manuscripts – birch tree bark – in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Sangam
Inscriptions – Stone, metal
Buildings – Stone, brick
Others – tools, weapons, coins, pots, pans, ornaments, clothes, graves, tombstones – stone, bone, clay,
metal; accounts of sailors and travelers

Why did hunter-gatherers started moving from one place to another?

Animals keep moving. Food exhausted at one place. Seasons keep changing. In search of water.

Explain some of the important prehistoric sites.

Paleolithic - Bhimbetka Caves (MP, Narmada banks) – Cave and Rock shelters, Kurnool Caves (AP)-
source of ash – suggested use of fire, Hunsgi (Maharashtra)
Neolithic/Early farmers and herders - Burzaholm(J&K)/Chirand(Bihar)/ DaojaliHading (Assam)/
Mehrgarh(Pak)/ Paiyampalli(TN)

Explain the timeline of stone ages.

2 milllion – 12000 yago - Paleolithic age – Old stone age
12000 – 10000 yago – Mesolithic age – Middle stone age – microliths
10000 – current – Neolithic age – New stone age – Early farmers and herders – fine cutting tools,
polished, mortars and pestles

The earliest animal to be domesticated was? Dog

Grasslands developed around which time? Why? Around 12000 yago due to warm climates
What are the different families of Indian languages?
Indo-European –Sanskrit/Assamese/Gujarati/Hindi/Kashmiri/Sindhi/Persian/English/European
Tibeto-Burman – Northeastern languages (NOT Assamese)
Dravidian – South Indian languages
Austro Asiatic – Jharkhand

Who wrote grammar for Sanskrit? Panini

When did the Buddha, Mahavira and Upanishadic thinkers emerge? 2500 yago.
When was Sangam literature composed? 2300 yago
When was iron used in the subcontinent? 3000 yago

Who was the first person to state that day and nights are caused due to earth’s own rotation?
Aryabhatta in his work Aryabhattiyam

Who are the important mathematicians in ancient India?

Aryabhatta, varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya
What are the important books in medicine in ancient India?
Charakasamhita by Charaka – on medicine
Susrutasamhita by Susruta – on surgical procedures

Harappa/IVC

What are the salient features of Harappa/IV civilization?

Developed 4700 years ago, across Indus river valleys.
Pak - Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ganweriwala, Chanhudaro, Sotkakoh
India-Rakhi Garhi(Haryana); Kalibangan(Rajasthan); Dholavira, Surkotada, Lothal(Gujarat)
Cities – two parts – west was smaller but higher (citadel) – east was lower town
Dholvaira (Rann of Kutchh)- divided into 3 parts, massive gateways and stone walls
Lothal (Sabarmati, Gulf of Khambat) - Dockyard
Straight drains with holes covered
Metals used – Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze
Copper from Rajasthan/Oman; Tin-Afghanistan/Iran; Gold-Karnataka; Precious stones-
Gujarat/Iran/Afghanistan
Crafts – terracotta, beadwork with Carnelian, Stone blades, Cloth embroidery, shell work, faience
(shiny/glassy surface) to make bangles, weights made of Chert, carts
Agriculture – wheat, barley, sesame, peas, rice, linseed, mustard- wooden plough & irrigation
Animals – sheep, cattle, goat, buffalo; ate fish and antelope
Harappan seals in Harappan script also found
3900 yago – ended – probably due to deforestation/floods/ruler incapacity

Early Vedic period

What are the features of Vedas (oldest to youngest)?

Rig Veda – Knowldege, Suktas of Indra, Agni and Soma(plant) – Largest, Oldest – 3500 yago
Later Vedic literature:
Sama Veda – Music and Dance – Smallest Veda
Yajur Veda – Prayers
Atharva veda – Daily life, Magical charms – Youngest

Did women compose hymns in Vedas? Yes

What is the language of Vedas? Vedic Sanskrit
Who are the different kinds of people in (Early) Vedic period?
Brahmins – performed rituals
Rajas – chosen by jana, no armies/palaces/taxes/capital cities – performed yajnas
Aryas – composed Vedas
Dasus – slaves

Write about megaliths of (Early) Vedic period.

Started around 3000 yago
Megaliths indicated burials, buried with Black and Red ware pots, and animals.
Iron tools, ornaments of gold and stone were found – indicate social hierarchy.
Portholes -to bury more than one person.
Inamgaon(Maharahstra, river Ghod, Bhima) is an important site (3600-2700 yago)
Brahmagiri (Karnataka) and Adichanallur (TN) are other sites

Early Kingdoms of Later Vedic period

Show transition of Early to Later Vedic period.

3500 yago – Early Vedic
3000 yago – Janapadas
2500 yago – Mahajanapadas
How are rajas of Later Vedic period different from the Early Vedic period?
Became rajas by performing very big sacrifices/yajnas – Ex. Ashwamedhayajna

Which people were not allowed to study Vedas? Women and Shudras

Write about Janapadas.

Emerged around 3000 years ago.
Janapada – land where jana sets foot. Became rajas of janapadas (janas, in case of Early Vedic period) by
performing sacrifices.
Purana Qila (Delhi), Hastinapura (Meerut, UP), Atranjikhera (Etah, UP)
Started growing sugarcane. Introduced Painted Greyware.

Write about Mahajanapadas.

Some Janapadas became more important ~ 2500 years ago – Mahajanapadas
Had capital city, fortified walls, forts, armies
Payments made through punch market coins
Tax collection began (on agri –1/6th bhaga/crafts persons/herders/hunters/gatherers/goods)
Iron ploughshares were used. Transplantation of paddy started.
New class of Kammakaras (landless agri labourers) emerged.
Kausambi(UP)/Rajagriha(Bihar)/Vaishali(Bihar)/Ujjain(MP)/Taxila(Pak)

Who could not participate in ganas and sanghas? Women, dasas, kammakaras.
When did the Ganas and Sanghas end? ~1500 yago.

Religion

What are Puranas and how are they different from Vedas?
Puranas contain stories of Vishnu, Shiva and Durga, creation of the world and about kings.
Unlike Vedas, women and shudras could also study puranas.

Who compiled Puranas? Vyasa

Which stories are often shown in railings of stupas and paintings such as in Ajanta? Jatakas

What were the six Indian philosophical schools of thought?

Vaishesika – Konada
Nyaya - Gotama
Samkhya - Kapila
Yoga – Patanjali
Purva Mimamsa - Jamini
Uttara Mimamsa - Vyasa

Religious buildings

What were the important architectural features of Hindu temples?

Garbhagriha – where image of the chief deity is placed
Shikhara – structure built on top of garbhagriha to show sacredness
Mandapa – hall where people assemble
What were the important architectural features of Buddhist stupas?
Stupas has relic caskets (containing bones, teeth, ashes of Buddha and things they used).
Stupas also has prakadshina pathas for devotees to enter.

Buddhism and Buddha

Buddha belonged to which group? Sakya gana. He was a Kshatriya.

Where did Buddha pass away? Kusinara/Kushinagar (UP)
Where did Buddha attain enlightenment? Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
What were the main teachings of Buddha? Tanha(constant craving) and Karma
Which language did Buddha preach in? Prakrit
Rules for Buddhist sangha are written in? Vinaya Pitaka
Were there any restrictions on joining Buddhist sangha? Everyone could join. Only permission was
required (Ex. Wives from husbands, children from parents, slaves from masters).
What were the shelters for Buddhist monks? Monasteries or Viharas
What are the two main features of Mahayana Buddhism? When was this form active?
Buddha’s statues were made. Belief in Bodhisattvas began. Started 1900 yago with Kushanas.
Where was Mahayana Buddhism spread to? China, Japan, Korea and Central Asia
Where was Theravada Buddhism spread to? Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thai, Indonesia, SE Asia
Who were the famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrims? When did they arrive?
Fa Xian – 1600 yago - Bengal
Xuan Zang – 1400 yago - Nalanda
I-Qing – 1350 yago

Jainism and Mahavira

Who was the 24th tirthankara? Vardhamana Mahavira

Mahavira belonged to which group? Lichchhavis, a Vajji Sangha. He was a Kshatriya.
What were the main teachings of Mahavira? Ahimsa
Which language did Mahavira preach in? Prakrit
Who could not join Jainism? Why? Farmers. As they had to kill insects – ahimsa.
Where were the teachings of Mahavira written? Valabhi, Gujarat- 1500 years ago

Upanishads

What was the main idea of Upanishadic thinkers?

They looked for something permanent in the universe after death.
Atman (individual soul) and Brahman (universal soul) will eventually be one.
Were women allowed as Upanishadic thinkers? Yes. Gargi was famous for learning.
Were poor allowed as Upanishadic thinkers? Rarely. Satyakama Jabala was a famous one.
Who was the famous Upanishadic thinkers? Shankaracharya

Bhakti Movement

What is Bhakti?
A person’s devotion to his/her chosen deity.
Bhakti emphasized devotion and individual worship of a god/goddess and no sacrifices
Bhakti gods were created in beautiful images and sculptures according to one’s devotion
Who can follow Bhakti? Everyone irrespective of class/caste/gender
Who were the important deities of Bhakti period? Shiva, Vishnu and Durga

Villages & Cities

Where did the early cities appear?

4700 yago - Indus Valley Cities appeared
2500 yago – Magadha Empire along Ganga and Son (Bihar)- first big kingdom

Name the important prehistoric settlements.

Burzaholm – pit houses
Mehrgarh – square/rectangular houses + burials with animals
Kurnool & Bhimbetka – Caves & cave/rock shelters

What were the different kinds of people living in the South?

Vellalar – Large landowners
Uzhavar - Ordinary ploughmen
Adimai/Kadaisiyar – Slaves/landless laborers

What were the different kinds of people living in the North?

Grama Bhojaka – village headman (tax collector, police and judge), largest landowner
Grihapati – Smaller landowners
Dasa Karmakara – landless laborers

What is Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)?

Pottery found in the northern subcontinent, metallic looking with a shiny black surface.

What are the important centers for textile in North and South? Varanasi and Madurai
What are Shrenis? Merchant organizations, served as banks.
What is amphorae? Tall double handled jars containing oil/wine imported from Mediterranean.
What is Arretine ware? Stamped red glazed pottery impoted from Italy.
Which regions was Arikamedu port trading with? Italy, Rome and Mediterranean region
What metal were the punch marked coins made of? Silver
Punch marked coins were in use in which time? 2500 yago
Which northern city was important for Janis, Buddhists and Hindu cultures? Mathura
Settlement in Arikamedu was during which period? 2200-1900 yago
Which spice was referred to as black gold by Romans? Pepper

Ancient Indian Kingdoms

What is Prashasti? Inscriptions in praise of someone.

Magadha Empire

Write about Magadha empire, a Mahajanapada.

Capital – Rajagriha (Rajgir, early) and Pataliputra (Patna, later) – both in Bihar.
Located between Ganga and Son.
Elephants used in army. Iron ore mines.
Important rulers – Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadmananda.
Alexander invaded but ran away.

What was the name of Prakrit language spoken in Magadha empire? Magadhi

Vajji Empire

Write about Vajji empire, a Mahajanapada.

Capital at Vaishali (Bihar). North of Magadha empire.
Consisted of ganas(group of many) and sanghas(organization/association).
Many rulers/rajas ruled at once unlike Magadha.
Digha Nikaya describes an account of Vajjis.

Mauryan Empire

When was the Maurya Empire established? ~2300 yago

Who were main rulers of Maurya empire? Chandragupta Maurya (founder), Bindusara, Asoka
Who was in Chandragupta Maurya’s court? Chanakya/ Kautilya
What was the main work of Kautilya/Chanakya? Arthashastra
Asoka’s inscriptions were found in which countries? India, Pakistan, Afghanistan
Which were important cities of Maurya Empire? Pataliputra(main capital)/Taxila/Ujjain
Greek ruler Seleucus sent a messenger to Chandragupta. Name him. Megasthenes
Royal princes were sent to provinces as what in Mauryan Empire? Governors
Who was the first ruler to take his message to people through inscriptions? Asoka
What was the script & language of Asoka’s inscriptions? Prakrit, written in Brahmi script
What was the main teaching of Asoka? Dhamma(Prakrit)/ Dharma(Sanskrit)
Who did Asoka appoint to preach Dhamma? Dhamma Mahamattas
Asoka sent messengers to which countries? Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sri Lanka
When did the Mauryan empire collapse? 2200 years ago

Kushanas

Which rulers controlled the Silk route? Kushanas

Major centers of power of Kushanas were? Peshawar, Mathura, Taxila
Who issued gold coins for the first time? Kushanas
Kushanas were active during which period? 2000 yago
The most important ruler of Kushanas? Kalinga
Who composed biography of Buddha? Ashvaghosha. He was in Kalinga’s court.
Which language was Buddhacharita composed in? Sanskrit

Gupta dynasty

When did Gupta dynasty begun? 1700 yago

Who was the poet in the court of Samudragupta? Harishena
Who was the Gupta king who played veena? Samudragupta
What is the relation of Aryavartas and rulers of Dakshinapathas wrt Samudragupta?
Aryavartas were conquered by Samudragupta. The 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha were defeated by him but
kept ruling and paid tributes to Samudragupta.

Explain the lineage of important Gupta rulers.

1. Chandragupta- wife Kumara devi – belonged to Lichchhavi gana – Maharaj-adhiraja
2. Samudraputa – Harisena in court – composed prashasti as Kavya in Allahabad
3. Chandgragupra II/ Vikramaditya – Kalidasa and Aryabhatta in court
4. Harshavardhana – 1400 yago – Banabhatta in court

Who wrote Harshacharita and in what language? Banabhatta, in Sanskrit

Harshavardhana was stopped at Narmada by which King? Pulakeshin II of Chalukyas
The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi belongs to which dynasty? Guptas

South Indian Kingdoms

Who were Muvendar? The three chiefs of Cheras, Pandyas and Chola families. They became powerful
in the South 2300 yago.

What was the capital of Cholas, Cheras, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Pandyas?
Cholas - Puhar/Kavertipattanam
Pandyas – Madurai
Pallavas - Kanchipuram
Cheras – Muziri/Vanchi
Chalukyas – Aihole

Who were known as lords of dakshinapatha? Satavahanas

The most important ruler of Satavahanas/dakshinapatha? Gautamiputra Satakarni
Who was the court poet of Pulakeshin II who composed his prashasti? Ravikirti
What were the administrative positions in the South Indian kingdoms?
• Maha-danda-nayaka – Chief Judicial Officer (Harisena)
• Kumar-amatya – Important minister
 • Sandhi-vigrahika – Minister of war and peace
• Nagara-shreshti – Chief banker or merchant of the city
• Sarthavaha – leader of merchants
• Prathama-kulika – Chief craftsman
• Head of Kayashta/scribes

Who were Samantas? Independent military leaders who maintained mercenary armies

How did people assemble in South Indian kingdoms?

Sabha – assembly of brahmins
Ur – assembly of land owners who were not brahmins
Nagaram -assembly of merchants

What languages were used in the ancient South Indian kingdoms?

Kings and Brahmins – Sanskrit; Everyone else spoke in Prakrit

Who composed Silappadikaram in Tamil and when? Ilango, 1800 yago

Who composed Manimekalai in Tamil and when? Sattanar, 1400 yago
Who composed Abhignana Sakuntalam? Kalidasa
 Medieval India - Overview

How was the name ‘Hindustan’ changed over the years?

13th C – Minhaj-i-Siraj –in Persian – areas of Punjab, Haryana and land b/w Ganga and Yamuna (for
referring parts of Delhi Sultan)
Babur used it to describe the geography, flora and fauna, cultures of the subcontinent
14th C – Amir Khusrau used it to describe the linguistic diversity of the land
It was a geographical and a cultural region. Political and national identities came later

What is the duration of the medieval history? 700-1750 AD (Anno Domini)

What are the problems with manuscripts as sources of history?

Due to multiple copies by scribes, the meanings changed over time.
Unavailability of original manuscripts.
The same writer changing their own interpretation and presentation.

Who was Ziyauddin Barani? 14th C chronicler.

What were some of the crops introduced in the medieval period? Tea, Coffee, Chillies, Potato, Corn

Name some of the technological interventions of the medieval period.

Persian wheel (for irrigation), spinning wheel, firearms & gunpowder for combat, etc.

Why did Jatis/sub-castes emerge?

The needs of the people increased and occupations differentiated into many for the requirement of new
skills. Jatis are ranked on the basis of occupation and background. They could change with power,
influence, resources and region.

What is Jati Panchayat?

Members of a jati framed their own rules & regulations to manage their conduct, enforced by elders.

When did Islam reach India? 7th C. Muhammed, the prophet dies in 632 AD.
Who are Ulama? Learned theologians and jurists of Islam.

What are the four Sunni schools of thought and which of them reached India?
Hanafi (India-Waqf board), Shaifi/Shafi’I (India), Hanbali, , Maliki

What are the three Shia schools of thought and which of them reached India?
Islamailis/Ashrafs (India- Khojas (east) and Bohras (west)), Isna, Zaidi

Medieval Kings and Kingdoms

Who were samantas? What titles did they use?

Big landlords or chieftains subordinates to kings, also provided military support. Maha-samanta and
Maha-mandaleshwara.

Did Islamic rulers have prashatis? Yes. Ex. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban had one.
Could you change your caste status during the medieval period?
Yes. Become Kshatriya by performing sacrifices such as Hiranyagarbhadana (Golden womb charity).

Give examples of Samantas establishing independence from kings.

Rashtrakutas (Dantidurga) overthrew Chalukyas of Karnataka.
Kadambas (Mayurasharman) estd. kingdom in Karnataka.
Gurjara-Pratihara (Harichandra) estd. kingdom in Rajasthan.
What were some of the titles of the kings?
Maharaja-adhiraja, Maharana, Param Bhattaraka, Param Parameshwara, Tribhuvana Chakravarin

Chauhans ruled from? Delhi and Ajmers

What were the vetti and kadimai? Taxes of Cholas. Vetti -forced labour and Kadimai – land revenue.
How did the land grants given to Brahmanas recorded? By inscriptions on copper plates.
Somnath temple was raided by which invader? Sultan Mahmud on Ghazni ~1000 AD.

Who was Kalhana and what is he known for?

Kalhana wrote long Sanskrit poem on rulers of Kashmir. He criticised them and their policies.

What was the tripartite struggle and where did it take place?
Constant fight between Gurjara-Pratiharas, palas and Rashtrakutas to control Kanauj.

What is Kitab-ul-Hind?
An account of Indian subcontinent, written in Arabic by Al-Biruni under Sultam Mahmud of Ghazni.

How did Cholas emerge?

Vijayalaya, a Chola from Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri Delta from Muttaraiyar and built the town of
Thanjavur.

List some of the temples built by Chola rulers.

Vijayalaya – Goddess Nishumbhasudini in Thanjavur.
RajaRaja Chola – Thanjavur temple
Rajendra Chola – Gangaikondacholapuram temple

How was irrigation done under the Cholas?

Embankments to prevent floods. Canals to carry water. Wells. Tanks for rainwater.

Explain the administration in the Chola Kingdom.

- Ur – settlements of peasants
- Nagaram – association of traders
- Sabha – administrative centre – had strict membership guidelines
- Nadu – groups of villages forming larger units
- Pulaiyas – outcastes
- Village council and Nadu performed various administrative functions & collected taxes
- Rich peasants of Vellala caste held immense control. Muvendavelan & Araiyar(cheif) were titles.

What were the categories of land under Cholas?

- Vellanvagai – land on non-Brahmana peasants
- Bhrahmadeya – land gifted to Brahmanas
- Shalabhoga – land for school
- Devadana, Titunamattukkani – land gifted to temples
- Pallichandanam – land donated to Jaina institutions

The Delhi Sultanate

Under whose rule did Delhi become an important city? Tomaras, followed by Chauhans in 12th C.
What are Delhiwal? Coins minted in Delhi which were widely in circulation

Mention some of the important places built by Sultans in Delhi.

Delhi -i- Kuhna (old city), Siri and Jahapanah
List out the rulers of Delhi in the chronological order.
- Tomaras - Ananga Pala – Early 12th C
- Chauhans - Prithviraj Chauhan – Late 12th C
- Early Turkish - 13th C - Qutubuddin Aibak, Shamsuddin Iltumish, Raziyya, Ghiyasuddin Balban
- Khaljis – Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji – Early 13th C
- Tughlaqs – Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammed Tughlaq, Firuz Shah Tughlaq – throughout 14th C
- Sayyids – Khizr Khan – Early 15th C
- Lodis - Bahlul Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi – Late 15th C
(Next come Mughals & Sur in between)

Minhaj-i-Siraj was a chronicler during whose reign? Iltumish and Raziyya

What was the language of administration of Delhi Sultanate? Persian
Under whose reign did the Delhi Sultanate reach its farthest extent? Muhammed Tughlaq.

What are Tarikh/Tawarikh? What is their language?

Histories/ events recorded during the Delhi Sultanate written in Persian by learned men

What are the features of people who wrote Tawariks?

They lived in cities so they did not know about ordinary citizens.
They wrote in praise of Sultans expecting rewards
They wrote of an ideal society based on birth right and gender distinctions.

Name the queens who ruled Delhi Sultanate, Kakatiya (AP) and Kashmir?
Raziyya, Rudramadevi and Didda

How did Sultans expand the “internal frontier” and “external frontier”?
Internal – Cleared forests within garrison towns to encourage agriculture. Displaced hunter-gatherers
External – Led expeditions to the Southern India under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammed Tughlaq

What is the meaning of Jama Masjid? Congregational mosque

Who built the Qutub Minar? Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltumish

What was the main mosque of Jahanpanah? Begumpuri mosque under Muhammed Tughlaq

How did mosques help the kingdoms?

United believers of Islam as they were from diverse backgrounds.

Who were the bandagan?

Slaves of Khalji and Tughlaq rulers appointed for administrative offices. These were commoners.

How did the Sultans command their military?

Appointed military commanders (slaves) as governors of territories called iqtas. They were called iqtadar
or muqti.

How did the Sultans control Samantas?

They were forced to accept authority and took away their revenue rights, forced to pay taxes.

How did the Sultans control their muqtis?

They were given revenues of tax assignments as salary. Their posts were short term and non-inheritable.

What were the types of taxes under Sultans?

3 taxes - Kharaj (50% agri produce tax on peasants), cattle and house tax

Who was Ibn Battuta? Traveller from Morocco in the 14th C, wrote about Sultans and chiefs(samantas).

What was the nature of resistance of Alauddin khalji and Mohd. Tughlaq against Genghis Khan?
Both raised large standing armies in Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji– Defensive strategy, constructed Siri garrison at Delhi, Kharaj tax for feeding, Paid in
cash and controlled prices of goods in Delhi – Administrative success.
Muhammed Tughlaq – Offensive strategy, shifted residents to Daulatabad, Imposed additional taxes,
Paid in cash but used token currency – Administrative failure.

The Mughal Empire

Explain the lineage of early Mughal emperors.

~16th C – Babur, Humayun, Akbar.
~17th C – Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb.

Who were the Mughals? Descendants of Genghis Khan (maternal) & Timur/Turks (paternal).
What were the central provinces under Mughals? Agra and Delhi.

Why were Mughals dislike their Mongol inheritance but proud of Timur inheritance?
Massacres by Genghis Khan & Uzbegs were their Mongol competitors.
Timurid/ Turkish ancestors had captured Delhi in 1398.

Write about the important Mughal emperors.

- Babur: 1st ruled from Ferghana (Uzbekistan). Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 and captured Delhi &
Agra. Used cannons for warfare.
- Humayun: Faced competition by his brother Mirza Kamran. Fled to Iran after defeat by Sher Khan
at Kanauj. Received help from Safavid Shah of Iran and recaptured Delhi in 1555.
- Akbar: Captured Sisodiya capital Chittor and Ranthambor. Captured Qandahar from Safavids,
Kashmir, Qabul from brother Mirza Hakim, Bihar, Bengal & Orissa. Annexed Deccan regions of
Ahmednagar, Berar & Khandesh.
- Jahangir: Prince Salim. Nur Jahan- wife. Not many successful campaigns against Ahoms, Sikhs.
- Shah Jahan: Prince Khurram. Lost Qandahar to Safavids. Continued Deccan invasion. Imprisoned
by Aurangzeb for the rest of his life.
- Aurangzeb: Defeated Ahoms. Insulted Shivaji. Poor administration and religious intolerance. Fled
to Iran under Safavid Khan after Prince Akbar rebelled and got help from Marathas and Deccan
Sultanate. Annexed the last of Deccan Sultanate – Bijapur and Golconda.

What was the Mughal tradition of succession?

Coparcenary inheritance (equal division among sons) in opp. to Primogeniture (eldest son inheritance).

Who were the queens of Akbar and Jahangir?

Akbar – Kachhwaha princess, daughter of Rajput ruler of Amber (Jaipur)
Jahangir – Rathor princess, daughter of Rajput ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur)

What were Watan and Watan jagir?

Watan was the land given back to defeated rulers. Watan jagirs was giving back assignments. This helped
in extending influence of Mughals without humiliation – a successful administration.

Who are Mansabdars?

Mansabdars are individuals who joined Mughal service, holding a mansab (rank). It was a grading system
helped with rank, salary and military reposnsibilities.

How were the rank and salary decided for mansabdars? On the basis of zat. (Higher zat, higher rank)
What is Sawar? Cavalry rank, decided on the no. of cavalrymen to be kept by mansabdars.

What was the difference between Jagirs of Mughals and Iqtas of Sultans?
Quite similar but Mansabdars did not reside and administer like Iqtadars/Muqtis. Servants did their job.

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Who were the Zamindars under Mughals?
Any intermediaries (local headmen or powerful chieftains) who collected taxes on their behalf.

What is Zabt and who designed it?

Todar Mal, Akbar’s revenue minister designed the system of Zabt- tax on produce, by surveying the crop
yields for 10 year period. Each province was divided into revenue circles with own revenue rates for
different crops.

Write about Akbar Nama.

Abul Fazal, close friend of Akbar wrote history of Akbar’s reign titled Akbar Nama.
Divided into 3 volumes:
1- Akbar’s ancestors
2- Akbar’s reign
3- Akbar’s administration, army, revenue, etc. with statistical details – called Ain-i-Akbari

Explain the offices held under Akbar’s reign.

- Subedar: Governor of provinces (subas) doing political & administrative functions
- Naib: Deputy governor
- Diwan: Financial officer
- Bakhshi: Military paymaster
- Sadr: Minister in charge of religious affairs
- Faujdar: Military commander
- Kotwal: Town police commander
- Umara: Chief nobles

How did Akbar come up with the policy of Sulh-i-kuhl?

After having discussions with Ulama (Islamic priest), Brahmanas, Jesuit priests & Zoroastrians at Ibadat
Khana (Fatehpur Sikri), he realised the dogmatic and bigoted view of religious leaders. Came up with the
idea of Sulh-i-kuhl or universal peace- a system focused on ethics, peace, honesty and justice. Abul Fazl
helped in framing this vision.

How did Akbar show his interest in Sanskrit works?

Set up Maktab Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to translate Sanskrit works into Persian. Translated Ramayana,
Mahabharata (Razmnamah), Lilavati (by Bhashakra, Siddhanta Shiromani) and Yogavashisht (by Valmiki
& Vashishta)

Medieval Architecture

Why were the temples important in kingdoms?

They were not only places of worship but hubs of social, economic and cultural life. Several specialists
such as priests, garland makers, cooks, dancers, sweepers, musicians, dancers lived around. Rulers hoped
to win their praise. In the South, the temples were a miniature model of the world ruled by the kings.

Explain the Trabeate/Corbelled and Arcurate style of architecture.

Trabeate – 8th -13th C – Placed horizontal beams across two vertical columns. Ex: Qawwat-ul-Islam
Arcurate – 12th C onwards - Arch/keystone based. Ex: Qawwat-ul-Islam, Alai Darwaza

Which temple has the highest Shikhara? Rajarajeshwara temple at Thanjavur.

Who was the architect of Rajarajeshvara temple? Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan.

How did the Southern and Muslim rulers approached towards God?
Southern rulers – took the God’s name to appear auspicious and god-like. Ex: Rajarajadeva
Muslim rulers- proclaimed themselves as “Shadow of God”
Who built Jami Masjid? Shahjahan at Shahjahanabad

How did water influence the construction activities?

Availability of water meant the ruler was good. So they built reservoirs and tanks. Iltumish built Hauz-i-
Sultani or King’s reservoir at Delhi-i-Kuhna. Several tanks were attached to temples (Ex: Gurudwaras)

What are Chaharbagh?

Chaharbagh or four gardens were formal gardens placed within rectangular walled enclosures and divided
into 4 quarters by artificial channels. Started with Akbar, carried on by Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Ex. Humayun’s tomb (Delhi), Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir), Lal Mahal Bari (Rajasthan)

What is Pishtaq? Tall gateway in Mughal architecture.

What is Qibla? The direction faced by Muslims during prayer.
What is Hasht Bihisht? “Eight paradises” or central hall surrounded by eight rooms.

Explain how Mughal architecture changed during Shah Jahan’s rule?

Fused elements of Mughal architecture. Carefully planned public and private halls – Diwan-i-Khas O Am.
Courts were described as Chihil Sutun – 40 pillared halls. Courts accessible to all public.

What is Pietra Dura? Whose court had this style?

Coloured hard stones placed in depressions in marble/sandstone creating beautiful patterns.

Who introduced river front gardens? Shah Jahan. Ex. Taj mahal.

Medieval Towns and Crafts

What were the different types of towns during the medieval times?
Port or commercial towns, Administrative towns, Temple towns

Who were Saliya/Kaikkolar and Sthapatis? Weavers and Sculptors of Thanjavur respectively.
Who were Devadasis? Temple dancers.
Who are Rathakars? Chariot makers
How were Chola bronze statues made? Lost wax technique.
How is bell metal different from bronxze? Contains greater amount of tin than bronze.

Name some temple towns.

Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa/Vidisha, Maharashtra), Somnath (Gujarat), Kanchipuram(TN), Tirupati (AP)

Name the pilgrimage centres that turned into townships.

Vrindavan (UP) and Thiruvannamalai (TN)

Which town has a coexistence of Brahmanic and Islamic culture? Ajmer (Chauhans and Mughals)
What is Mandapika/Mandi and Hatta/Haat? Market and market streets

Name the artisans of these times. Potters, Oil pressers, Sugar makers, Toddy makers, Smiths,
Stonemasons, etc.

Name some of the goods sold in mandis and haats.

Horse, Salt, Camphor, Saffron, Betel nut, Spices like pepper, etc.

Name the important merchant guilds of the South. Manigraman and Nanadesi. (8th C onwards)

Name some of the important trading groups.

Chettiars, Marwari Oswals, Hindu Baniyas, Muslim Bohras.

Name the important craft person community.

Vishwakarma or Panchalas who were Goldsmiths, Bronzesmiths, Blacksmiths, Masons, Carpenters.

What was the Bidri craft? Bidar craft known for inlay work in copper and silver black.

What was the speciality of Hampi, the capital of Vijayanagara?

Fortified city was built with interlocking of stones and no mortar/cement was used.
Mahanavami platform for king to receive tributes. Mahanavami/Navratri celebrated Virupaksha (a form
of Vishnu) temple.

Who defeated the Vijayanagara empire? Deccan Sultanate

Which city was called the gateway to Mecca? Surat

What is Zari? Gold laced bordered textiles of Surat
Whay was Surat famous economically? For its Kathiawad Seths/Mahajans (Money changers) and
Hundis (note recording deposit) which were honoured in Egypt, Belgium and Italy.

What were Black towns? Towns established by the English for blacks/natives and craftsmen.

Medieval Tribes

List some of the important tribes of Medieval India.

Khokhar & Ghakkar (Punjab), Lagahs& Arghuns (Sing and Multan), Balochis (North-west), Gaddis
(Western Himalaya), Nagas & Ahoms (North East), Cheros (Jharkhand), Mundas and Santhals (Orissa
and Bengal), Kolis & Berads (Maharashtra and Karnataka), Koragas, Vetars, maravars (South India), Bhils
(Central and Western India), Gonds (Maharashtra, Chattisgarh, MP, AP).

What kind of traditions did tribal societies have? Rich oral and no written traditions.
What is Tanda? Caravan of Banjara trader nomads.

Write about Gonds.

Lived in Gondwana – land of the Gonds – large forest areas – ruled by Rai or Raja
Practised shifting cultivation
Garha Katanga – mentioned in Akbar Nama – king Aman Das (Sangram Shah)
Centralised administration – Kingdom – Garhs – 84 village Chaurasi – 12 village Bahrot

Write about Ahoms.

Migrated from Myanmar to Brahmaputra valley. Sib Singh was important.
Created new political system by eliminating older system of Bhuiyas (landlords)
Depended on forced labor – Paiks (forced labour/slaves)
Centralised administration – Kingdom – Chals/Khels
Influenced by Hinduism partially
Historical works – Buranjis – written in Ahom language and Assamese

Medieval Religion

What were the significant religious ideas that emerged during this period?
All living things pass thorugh countless cyles of birth and rebirth
All human beings are not equal even at birth
Several sects/ideas were formed to oppose these notions

What was the main idea of Puranas? One could receive grace of God regardless of caste and rituals
What is hagiography? Religious biography
Write about Alvars and Nayanars.
Bhakti saints of Shiva and Vishnu respectively.
Included Untouchables – Pulaiyar and Panars.
Critical of Buddhists and Jainas.
Notable Alvars – Priyalvar, Andal, Tondaraddipodi Alvar & Nammalvar
Alvar songs – Divya Prabandham
Notable Nayanars – Sambandar, Sundarar, Appar, Manikkavasagar
Nayanar songs – Teravam and Tiruvacakam

Write about Shankara.

Kerala – 8th C – advocated Advaita – Oneness/Supreme God/Ultimate Reality/Brahman, Maya/Illusion

Write about Ramanuja.

TN – 11th C – Alvar influence – Vishishtadvaita/Qualified oneness – Distinct soul even when united

Write about Basavanna’s Virashaivism.

Karnataka – mid 12th C – companions are Allama Prabhu & Akkamahadevi
Advocated equality of all humans, against Brahminical ideas of caste, ritual/idol worship and women

Write about the Saints of Maharashtra.

13th – 17th C – Saint poets – simple Marathi songs – notion of personal god resting in everyone’s heart
Dhyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakhubai, Chokhamela family (Mahar caste)
Focused on Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple at Pandharpur
Rejected ritualism, social differences, renunciation
Advocated to live with families and serve people in need.
“Vaishnavas who understand pain of others”
Gave rise to Varkari sect which emphasised on annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur

Write about Nathpatis, Siddhacharas and Yogis.

Rejected ritualism, social differences using simple, logical arguments
Advocated renunciation of the world using yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.

What were the important ideas of Sufis?

Muslim mystics – rejected outward religiosity, rituals and codes of behaviour of Muslim scholars
Emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion to fellow humans

Name some of the important Sufis of Central Asia. Ghazzali, Rumi (Persian writer) and Sadi

Name some of the important Sufis of Chishti order.

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi), Baba Farid (Punjab), Khwaja
Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Bandanawaz Gisudaraz (Gulbarga)

List the methods of training the heart developed by Sufis.

- Zikr: chanting name or sacred formula
- Sama: singing
- Raqs: dancing
- Discussion, contemplation and breath control
All to be done under the guidance of master or Pir (spiritual guide, Persian name).

What are Silsilas? A spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers each with a different Tariqa (methodology)
Who founded the Rishi order of Kashmir? Sheikh Nuruddin Wali or Nund Rishi
What are Khanqahs? Where the Sufi masters held their assemblies
What are Dargahs? Tombs of Sufi saints which became pilgrimage centres for people of all faiths

Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas in which language? Awadhi

What were the compositions of Surdas? Sursagara, Surasaravali, Sahitya Lahari
Who composed Gita Govinda and in what language? Jayadeva in Sanskrit
Mirabai was a disciple of ? Ravidas

Write about Shankaradeva.

Vishnu devotee. Emphasised Eka Sarana Nama Dharma – Supreme surrender to the one
Teachings based on Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana. Composed Kirtana -ghosha.
Established Namgarh – houses of recitation and prayer
Established Satra – monastreries for transmission of knowledge

What were the important features of Bhakti saints?

They composed works in regional languages and could be sung.
Helped development of music through Bhajan, Kirtan and Abhang.

What were Kabir’s idea of devotion? How did he express them?

Rejection of major religious traditions. Believed in formless supreme God and preached bhakti/devotion.
He criticised external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam.

Who composes Sakhis and Pads? Kabir

Where are Kabir’s works preserved? Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak

Write about evolution of Guru Nanak’s ideology.

Guru Nanak – Born in Talwandi (Nankana Sahib, Pak). Estd. Dera Baba Nanak in Kartarpur.
Langar – common kitchen. Dharmasal/Gurudwara – sacred space created by him.
Guru Angad – compiled compositions of Guru Nanak in Gurmukhi & wrote his own.
Guru Arjun – complied all the above.
Guru Tegh Bahadur’s son, Guru Gobind Singh authenticated all compilations – Guru Granth Sahib.

What is Khalsa? Sikh political movement under Guru Gobind Singh. Evolved into Khalsa Panth.

What were the teachings of Guru Nanak?

Liberation is not a state of internal bliss but pursuit of active life with strong sense of social commitment.
- Nam/Nam-japna – right worship.
- Dan/Vand-chhakna – welfare of others.
- Isnan/Kirt-karna – Purity of conduct.
Worship of one god.

Medieval Regional Cultures

How did Malayalam develop?

Mahodayapuram (Kerala)– 9th C - Cheras – introduced both language & script. Influenced by Sanskrit.

What is Lalitkalam?
14th C - Deals with grammar and poetics, composed in Manipravalam (diamonds and corals) – in
Malayalam and Sanskrit.

How did the Jagannath cult emerge?

Emerged from religious traditions at Puri– Jagannatha means lord of the world, Vishnu
Deities made from wooden images – indicating tribal deity origin, later identified with Vishnu
Anantavarma of Ganga dynasty erected a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri
Anangabhima III proclaimed himself as the deputy of this god

Which deities does the manuscript of Jagannath cult show?

Balabhadra (Balarama), Jagannatha (Krishna) and Subhadra

What was the role on minstrels in Rajuptana? Specially trained to recite Rajput songs and poems.
Which group of kings spoke about sati/widow immolation? Rajputs

Describe the evolution of Kathak.

Kathak – derived from Katha – meaning story – developed in 15th-16th C with Bhakti movement
Kathaks - originally a caste of storytellers in north Indian temples, performing with gestures and songs
Legends of Radha Krishna were enacted in folk plays called Rasa Lila
Developed into two traditions or Gharanas – Rajasthan (Jaipur) and Lucknow
Performed in Mughal courts. Later developed by Wajid Ali Shah, last Nawab of Awadh
Spread to Punjab, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
One of the six classical form of dance in the country after independence

What are the six classical form of dance in the country after independence?
- Bharatanatyam (TN)
- Kathakali (Kerala)
- Kuchipudi (AP)
- Odissi (Odisha)
- Manipuri (Manipur)
- Kathak (Rajasthan/UP/North India)

Miniature paintings are characterised by? Brilliant water colour on cloth or paper

What were the scenes depicted by miniature paintings?

Court scenes, battle scenes, hunting and other aspects of social life.

What is Basholi? Intense form of miniature painting developed in Himachal Pradesh.

What is the most popular Basholi painting? Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari (illustration of text)
What is Kangra school of painitng? Vaishnavite influenced soft blue and green coloured miniatures.
Bengali is influenced by which languages? Sanskrit, Persian, tribal and European languages

Explain the classification of Early Bengali literature. Which one is easily available to historians?
- Literature indebted to Sanksrit – includes translation of Sanskrit epics, Maglakavyas
(auspicious poems dealing with local deities) and Bhakti literature, such as biographies of
Chaitanyadeva, leader of Vaishanavas. Several manuscripts were written and easier to find.
- Nath literature, independent of Sanskrit – songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories of
worship of Dharma Thakur and fairy tales, folk tales and ballads. Orally circulated.

Who were the Maynamati, Gopichandra and Dharma Thakur?

They were Naths who engaged in a variety of yogic practices.

Which cult became popular in Bengal and why?

Cult of Pirs, which included saints and Sufis, religious personalities, daring colonisers, deified soldiers,
Hindu and Buddhist deities and Animistic spirits. They served as community leaders, teachers,
adjudicators and ascribed with supernatural powers.

What is dochala and chauchala?

Double and Four roofed structure of thatched huts which inspired temples in Bengal.

What were the architectural feature of temples in Bengal?

Thatched roof with Bengal dome structure – dochala or chauchala
Square base – Four triangular roof meet in a line or point – Interior plain – Exterior decorated with
terracotta tiles and tablets

Who were the Kolu and Kansari? Oil pressers & bell metal workers. Helped build temples in Bengal.
Which purana let Brahmanas eat certain fish in Bengal? Brihaddharma Purana, 13th C, Sanskrit
 18th Century Politics

Which groups challenged Aurangzeb for the longest time? Marathas, Jats, Sikhs, Ahoms, Satnamis

What were the new states that emerged after the Mughal empire in 18th C?
- States carved from old Mughal provinces – Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal
- States enjoying considerable independence under Mughals as watan jagirs – Rajputs
- Other independent states of Jats, Marathas, Sikhs
-
Who founded Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal states?
Asaf Jah, Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan, Murshid Quli Khan

Who were Ijaradars? Revenue farmers who collected tax in Awadh and paid fixed amount of money.
Who were Mahajans? Lenders for the state of Awadh.

What were the common features among the three new states?
- Suspicious of administrative systems of Mughals – the Jagirdari system
- Practiced Ijaradari - contracted with revenue farmers for collection of revenue
- New relationships with rich bankers and merchants emerged

Who were the kings of Amber and Jodhpur and what offices did they hold under Mughals?
Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat
Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber held the governorship of Malwa

Which Rajput state denied the suzerainty of Mughals?

Mewar state, under Rana Pratap Singh

Who constructed astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantar) and at which places?

Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber at Delhi, Ujjain, Jaipur, Mathura, Varanasi

What were the name of Sikh organisations? Jathas > Misls > Dal Khalsa
Who was the 10th and last guru of Sikhs? Guru Gobind Singh
What are Gurmatas? Resolutions of the Sikh gurus passed during Baisakhi and Diwali
What is the Rakhi system? Sikhs offering protection to cultivators on offering 20% of produce as tax.
Who united the Sikh rulers? Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore, 1799.

Who were Deshmukhs? Powerful warrior families among Marathas

Who were Kunbis? Highly mobile peasant pastoralists, backbone of the Maratha army
Who wielded power after Shivaji’s death? Chitpavan Brahmanas as Peshwas (principal ministers)
What was the capital of Maratha Kingdom? Poona
Which Maratha ruler used guerrilla warfare? Chatrapati Shivaji
Which Maratha chief expanded the empire across Vindhyas? Baji Rao/Baji Rao Ballal
Which trade centres developed under the Marathas? Chanderi and Burhanpur

What were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi under the Maratha Empire?

Chauth – 25% land revenue collected by Zamindars. Collected by Marathas in the Deccan.
Sardeshmukhi – 9-10% of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the Deccan.

Name some prominent Maratha chiefs/sardars.

Sindhia (Gwalior, Ujjain), Gaekwad (Baroda), Bhonsle (Nagpur), Holkar (Indore).

What were the important cities and states under Jats? Where did they rule?
Panipat, Ballabgarh, Bharatpur. Ruled between Delhi and Agra.

Under whose regin did Jats reach its zenith?

Suraj Mal – estd. a strong kingdom of Bharatpur.
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British Policies and Administration after 1857

Act of 1858 And Queen’s proclamation

• Full control of the British Govt on Indian politics
• Secretary of State created in the British parliament
• Governor General of India was renamed Viceroy
• Introduced by Governor General Canning at Allahabad Durbar in 1858
• Indians would be qualified to enter admin services
• Princes would be kept safe and middle class would be advanced
But none of these were implemented. Indian interests< British. Indian resources were used to wage costly
wars. Administration was according to old Indian laws, so social evils prevailed. As industrial revolution
happened, British Industrialists emerged as a new class.

Control of Indian Govt. from Britain

• Secretary of state was responsible to British Parliament and not to Indians.
• India council was created but SOS could ignore the advice
• Policies were framed according to British economic interests
• Telegraph line (1870 India-Britain), Suez Canal, Steam powered engines helped increased control

Government of India
• Governor general in council (Executive council - 4 members + Commander-in-chief of army and
Legislative Council – Executive council + 6 others)
• Similarly for Governors of Madras, Bengal and Bombay – all of these are nominated members
• Indian Councils Act of 1892 –
o Indirect election of some members but no direct elections
o Discussion of budget
• 1857, Municipal Councils were set up in towns – revenue collected from local taxes
• 1882, District Boards were set up but only people with property could vote
Financial Matters
• 1860, Budget was introduced and revenue distributed between centre and the provinces
• Centre – Post offices, railways, opium, salt
• Provinces – land revenue, stamp duty, customs duty
• Stamp duty – for taking a case to law courts
Army
• Provincial armies combined under the leadership of commander-in-chief
• 5 Indians for 2 Europeans. Only Europeans were army officials
• Divide and Rule – Troops of different regions, castes, tribes were combined
• Only martial race groups of Indians were recruited
• Fought battles in Afghan, Myanmar with Indian soldiers
Civil Services
• Steel frame of the British empire but suffered due to domination by bureaucracy
• 1853, Civil service recruitment began- minimum age 23y(1853), 21y(1866), 19y(1876)
• Indians were not given enough or equal opportunities – exams held in London
• 1883 – Ilbert Bill controversy – Lord Rippon
• 1886 – 3 new services – Indian Civil Service, Provincial Civil Services, Professional Services (Ex.
Educational service, etc.)
Princely states
• 1876 Act – Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India
• India 2 parts – British India and Indian States
 • Princely states were subordinated but will not be annexed
• States had no international relations. Foreign travel of princes was checked by Curzon.
Divide and Rule
• Tried to divide the society on the basis of exploiting exists divisions of caste and religion
• Favoured the states and divided people into state people and British Indians
• Refused to introduce social reforms after 1857 for the same reason
• Framed Muslims as the chief enemies of the 1857 revolt. Wrote historical works framing Muslims
as oppressors of Hindus. Discriminated against Muslims in civil services

Changes in Economic Life 1858-1947

Different regions of the country became interdependent. A common economic life emerged to unify India.

Burden of Cultivators
• Zamindaris extorted the cultivators without looking into their economic conditions
• No agricultural advancements were made
• Letting and subletting increased the number of intermediaries and burden on the cultivators
• Pressure on the land increased due to high population and also smaller land holdings
• Focus on commercial crops had increased and loss of food grains (ex. American Civil war ended
cotton raw material to Britain in 1861-65)

Impoverishment of Peasantry
• Cultivators went into debt easily and their lands were ceased due to unproductive crops
• Famines occurred frequently due to monsoons and drought – more in late 19th C
• Famines reduced in 20th C due to improved irrigation, transport

Development of Irrigation
• Although irrigation was improving, it was costly due to payment of water charges. So the shift on
cash crops was imminent
• Dept. of Agriculture and Imperial Institute of Agriculture was set up in Pusa in Bihar and later
shifted to Delhi.
• Inequalities in land holdings and loss of employment around the year worsened the scenario

Development of Transport
• After 1857, focused on improvement of transport and communications, not for the Indians but
for their stronghold and economic interest
• 1853 – First railway line between Thane and Bombay, 1856 – Madras and Arakonam
• Ports of Bombay, Calcutta, Madras were connected with most important interior cities
• Cheaper freight charges to main ports but costlier in the interior – showing discrimination and
purpose of railways and roadways expansion was to serve economic interests of British
• Mainly focused on Economic Interests and Defence - mobilising troops
• Made transport cheaper for Indians, market outreach increased
• Paved way for development of industries by transporting coal and raw materials
• New class of workers emerged – casual unskilled labourers for laying railway lines

Modern industries in India

• Modern industries that mainly developed were Plantations and Machine Industries
• Overall growth if industries was there but very limited until the independence due to British
economic policies
 • Due to world wars and Swadeshi movement of 1905, demand for military and civil goods increased
and gave way for development of industries in India but not on a large scale
• Plantation industries
o Indigo – Bihar and Bengal – but declined in late 19th C due to cheap dye
o Tea – Assam, Bengal and Southern states – mid 19th C onwards – great demand
o Coffee, Rubber and Cinchona are others important plantation industries
• Machine industries – late 19th C onwards
o Cotton – 1853 first cotton mill in Bombay - many Indians owned mills – yarn was
produced and concentrated in Bombay, Ahmedabad and Madras
o Jute – 1855 first spinning machine in Bengal – monopolised world trade
o Coal field work began in 1845 for other industrial supply
o Iron ore smelting started in 1874 and 1905- TISCO Jamshedpur was setup but limited
o Cement industry began in 1930s
o Sugar industry began in 1930s and grew very fast and owned by Indians

Drain of Wealth
• There was a continuous flow of India’s wealth to Britain termed as Drain of Wealth
• ‘Home charges’ – a large portion of revenue collected was sent to Britain
• Salaries of SOS their pensions in Britain were paid from Indian revenue
• A 1/3rd of the Indian revenue was sent to Britain

Economic Condition of Indian People

• Two new classes emerged – Indian capitalists and Industrial workers, alongside middlemen
• The most basic feature of people during British rule was extreme poverty
• The incomes of the peasants, tenants, landless, labourers were very much less
• Middle class took up new jobs like law, teaching, engineering and business and were better off
• Cultivators fell into debt trap and became landless labourers
• Govt. expenditure on military and administration was responsible for poverty
• Kisan Sabhas, Harijan Leagues formed, AITUC estd. in 1920 for worker rights
• 1938 – INC set up National Planning Committee for Economic Development (future Planning
Commission)

Religious and Social Reform Movements and Cultural Awakening

• By 19th C, there was consensus that Indian society was backward and need to change it.
• From late 18th C, although few were educated, they helped transform society by bringing
knowledge from the western world and ideas like rationality, humanism and equality.
• After studying our ancient traditions, it gave a sense of pride. Ancient learning was used with
western ideas to create social reforms

Reform movements in Eastern India

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Knew many languages and studied Indian religions
• Believed in enlightening people about ancient religious texts and translated Vedas and Upanishads
into Bengali publications
• 1828 – Brahmo Sabha and 1830 – Brahmo Samaj (Debendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen,
who later split with radical ideas)– Forbade idol worship, orthodox Hindu practices such as
restrictions on food and drink, overseas travel, idol worship, purdah, etc.
• Education – freedom of press- published two newspapers
• Women empowerment – abolition of Sati in 1829, advocated against polygamy and for equal rights
of women to inherit property and education
 • Although small, introduced the new spirit of rationalism and reform

Young Bengal and Derozio

• Hindu College at Calcutta founded in 1817 started by David Hare (Scotland) an associate of RRR
• Vivian Derozio (Portugal), a radical thinker gathered a group of boys from this college, named as
Young Bengal, who ridiculed all old social traditions

Ishwara Chandra Vidyasagar

• Great sanksrit scholar. Sanksrit College in Calcutta conferred the title Vidyasagar
• Introduced Western thought to traditional Sanskrit education and allowed lower castes to study
• Originator of modern Bengali language
• Upliftment of widows and girls’ education. Not concerned about religion but for education
• Widow Remarriage Act of 1856
• First girls college was started in 1849 by Drinkwater Bethune

Reform Movements in Western India

• 1867 – Prarthana Samaj influenced by Brahmo Samaj started by Mahadev Govind Ranade &
Ramakrishna Bhandarkar
• Condemned caste system, untouchability.
• MG Ranade also started Indian National Socialist Conference in 1887 which met alongside INC
meetings to discuss social problems.
• MG Ranade advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and believed that social progress is must for political
and economic progress
• Gopal Deshmukh Lokhitwadi also started a number of social reform organisations
• Mahatma Jotirao Govindrao Phule advocated women and oppressed class upliftment.
• Jyotirao Phule started schools for girls and educated his wife to teach there
• 1873 – stated Satyashodak Samaj, open to everyone
• Started arranging marriage without Brahmanical ceremonies

Reform Movements in Southern India

• 1864- Veda Samaj estd. in Madras, influenced by Brahmo Samaj. Prominent leader was Chembeti
Sridharalu Naidu – translated Brahmo Samaj books into Telugu and Tamil
• Kandukuri Veereshalingam also dedicated to casue social reforms for oppressed, girls and against
orthodox practices
• In Kerala, Sree Narayana Guru was associated with temple reforms. Estd. Sri Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yojana
• Southern reform movements were focused around temples – temple entry movements, ending of
Devadasi system, more control of funds of temples, etc.

Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj

• Most influential religious and social reform movement
• Dayanand Saraswati original name – Mul Shankara.
• Satyarth Prakash was most important book
• Founded Arya Samaj in 18 75 in Bombay and spread to UP, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Punjab
• Based on “ten principles”, the first and most important was to study the Vedas
• Preached that Vedas are infallible, the ultimate texts of truth. Unlike others who also advocated
ancient texts but with rational thought, Dayanand Saraswati asserted the supremacy of Vedas.
• Spread education – Dayanand Anglo-Vedic school of Lahore and others
• Taught and preached in Hindi and in English

Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekananda

 • Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was a priest at Calcutta – placed faith in all religions – consulted by
Keshab Chandra Sen and Dayanand
• 1897- Ramakrishna Mission founded by Vivekananda
• “The best way to serve God is to serve mankind”.
• Vivekananda not only preached RP’s teaching but also enlightened the people of the s5ociety’s
weaknesses
• 1893-spoke at Chicago – All World Religious Conference which left a deep impact

Muslim Reform Movements

• Syed Ahmed or Bareilly, Shariatullah (Faraizi movement in Bengal) were the important figures
• The influence of western ideas came late among Muslims due to non-acceptance of these values
under the influence of Ulama. Hence middle class also did not emerge for a long time
• Tried to condemn the influence of caste system among Muslims, Purdah, polygamy and worked
for spread of education
• Nawab Abdul Latif started Mohammedan Literary Society of Calcutta and he worked for Hindu-
Muslim unity

Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh movement

• Advocated English education for upliftment of Muslims
• 1864 – founded Translation society, later Scientific society which published Urdu translations of
English books on science and humanities
• Established Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (AMU today) at Aligarh to teach humanities
and sciences in English medium.
• He opposed INC- Indians were not ready for self-governance – need to wait for upliftment but
promoted Hindu-Muslim unity
• Founded Indian Patriotic Association and dissuaded Muslims from joining INC

Sikh and Parsi Reform Movements

Parsi reform movements

• Dadabhai Naoroji and Naoroji Furdoonji were pioneers of reforms in Parsi community
• They started a journal, Rast Goftar which helped in spread of girl education
• Sorabji Bengali was another important figure

Sikh reform movements

• Singh Sabhas were formed at Lahore and Amritsar, later merged and founded the Khalsa College
at Amritsar in 1892 – promoted Gurmukhi, Sikh learning and Punjabi Literature
• Powerful movement for reform of Gurudwaras was launched to transfer the leadership from
Mahants and priests to Sikh representatives – by Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee
and Akali Dal
• 1925 – law giving rights of Gurudwaras to Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee

Progress of Social Reforms

• After 1857, the British were loath to social reforms as they were appeasing upper orthodox castes
• 1872 – Law sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages
• 1891– Law discouraged child marriage
• 1929 – Sharda Act – Girl > 14 years and Boy > 18 years for marriage
• Women took part in large numbers in the freedom movement – a sign of upliftment
• Abolition of polygamy, untouchability, property rights of women, temple entry did not gain much
success
 Education
• 1813 Charter – 1 lakh rupees/year for education.
• 1835 – William Bentick decided to promote Western education among Indians.
• 1854 – Govt. declared intention of creating institutional education from primary to university. This
is known as Wood’s Despatch. After 1857, implemented in the form of establishment of Public
instruction Departments in the provinces in each province with govt. allotment of grants. Indian
Educational Service was launched with teachers recruited from all over the country.
• No. of schools and colleges increased but the control of Govt. over education grew. It tried to
control the patriotism in the country.
• More attention to high school education was given and it was imitation of English system and
unrelated to the needs of the country. Primary schools were less focused and therefore, vast of the
country remained illiterate.
• Almost all social reformers also helped establish many educational institutions
• Established Vidyapeeths at Ahmedabad, Banaras and Jamia Millia Islamia (Aligarh later shifted to
Delhi)
• Rabindranath Tagore estd. Vishwa Bharati at Shantiniketan.
• Schools were started on the basis of Nai Talim scheme of Gandhiji for self-reliance.
• Illiteracy was one of the major problems of British rule. Post-independence, only 24% of males
and 7% of females were literate.

Cultural Awakening

Pride in India’s past

• The Britishers denigrated India’s past and showcased themselves as superior race
• The Indians started studying early history or ancient and medieval times and cultures
• European scholars like William Jones also helped. 1784-founded Asiatic Society of Calcutta
encouraged study of ancient and medieval history, languages, cultures, philosophy, arts, science
and law. He also translated Kalidasa’s Abhignana Shakuntalam into English.
• The discovery that India also had a great culture restored the self-respect of the people
• However, some revivalists focused on glorifying the past and restoring the same
• Eventually, they wanted to know why our culture was dominated by foreign authority and also
tried to understand our weaknesses
• Overall, it played a major role in cultural awakening

Literature
• Literature in every modern Indian language began to grow since 19th C
• Mostly involved around the theme of humanism, freedom struggle, daily lives, social problems,
aspirations and struggles, previously – religion and mythology
• Verses replaced by prose writing such as novel, short story, drama and essays
• Language was local and simplified
• Literature promoted social reforms, awareness of social problems, patriotism and nationalism
• Important Personalities in literature
o Bhartendu Harishchandra – Hindi literature- spread ideas of reform
o Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Vande Mataram), Rab Tagore (Gitanjali, JanaGana)
o Gurujada Apparao – Telugu
o Hari Narayan Apte – Marathi
o Narayan Menn, Kumaran Asan – Malayalam
o Fakirmohan Senapathi – Odiya
o Subramania Bharati – Tamil
o Hemachandra Barua – Assamese
o Venkatappa Gowda Puttappa – Kannada
o Mohammad Iqbal – Urdu – Sare Jahan se Acha
o Prem Chand – Hindi, Urdu – struggle of the poor and village men
 Art
• Abanindranath Tagore and oters revived classical Indian painting tradition, resulted in Bengal
school of painting
• Raja Ravi Verma painted legends from Indian epics and myths
• Amrita Shergil painted everyday life of people
• Nandalal Bose painted scenes from ancient legends

Growth of Press
• Many reformers were associated with journals and newspapers
• Powerful Indian press grew after 19th C in both Indian languages and English
• Became a powerful instrument for freedom struggle and gave expression to social, economic and
political demands
• Although many newspapers were persecuted by the British
o Amrit Bazar Patrika
o Hindu
o Indian Mirror
o Tribune
o Kesari
o Mahratta
o Swadeshamitran
o Prabhakar
o Indu-Prakash

Growth of Science
• Reformers favoured Science education as they thought lack of it was reason for backwardness
• Many reformers started Science societies (Ex. Syed Ahmed Khan)
• Superstitions such as prohibiting the dissection the body existed.
• Mahendralal Sircar was the first Indian medical student to dissect the human body. 1876 – started
the Indian Association of Cultivation of Science
• 1920s – Indian Science Congress Association was set up
• Important Personalities
o P C Ray
o J C Bose
o C V Raman – Nobel prize in 1930
o Meghnath Saha
o D N Wadia
o Birbal Sahni
o P C Mahalanobis – statistics
o Ramanujan
o S Visweswarayya – Engineering and technology, dams, hydro power, sericulture, etc.
• However they were hampered in work due to lack of research facilities
• They could not use their scientific knowledge for the advancement of the country

All these social and religious reforms, developments in literature, art, science, press, education awakened
the Indians. The changes in economic life and these developments promoted national consciousness and
led to the struggle of freedom from the British.

Rise of Indian Nationalism

Armed Revolts after 1857
There were many armed uprisings after 1857 and most of them were local, not serious threat to British.
Some of the armed uprisings were:
 • Wahabi movement under Syed Ahmed Barelvi
• Muslim religious educational movement at Deoband, Saharanpur, UP (opposed Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan)
• Kuka movement by Guru Ram Singh in Punjab
• Indigo revolt in Bengal and peasant movements in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa
• Rampa movement in Andhra
• Mundas, under Birsa Munda in Chotanagpur in Bihar
• Movement led by Tikendrajit in Manipur
• Movement led by Vasudeo Balwant Phadke in Maharashtra

Rise of National Consciousness

• There grew a gradual movement which expressed the aspirations of Indians as nation
• The demands of freedom was not localised (caste, region specific) but of entire nation
• Nothing united the people of India as much ever before
• The lack of unity among Indians was because of the political instability due to rise and fall of
various empires and due to the absence of common economic life, social values and cultures. But
even though there were many beliefs, religions, castes and ideologies, the ‘give and take’, i.e., the
interdependence of people on each other created a spirit of mutual tolerance and respect. The wars
and conflicts did not create conflicts among the commoners.
• When we speak of lack of unity, we mean lack of an awareness of common interests of all people in
India which distinguished them from others.
• And such Nationalism grew in India in conditions which were created by the British

Reasons for rise of National Consciousness

• Common Antagonistic feelings:
o The policy of British suppression created antagonism among almost all sections of the
society except the upper classes who they favoured.
• Political Unification:
o The political and administrative unification through uniform laws promoted commonness
and unity among the people from different parts of the country
• Economic life:
o Growth of interdependence due to modern trade and industries contributed to growth of
unity.
o Modern industries created industrial towns and cities, which served as breeding grounds
for the political movements in the second half of 19th C.
o National consciousness took root among the capitalists, industrial workers, and among
educated middle class first.
o Frequent occurrence of famines in the second half of 19th C, 30 million died
o Misery or peasants and ruination of artisans
• Modern Education:
o The British believed that the English education would make Indians support the British
rule but on the other hand, social reformers supported it as it helped the Indians gain the
advanced knowledge of the world.
o Educated Indians knew about many European languages and knew about the happenings
of the world. The movements in the west (American declaration of Independence and
French declaration of rights of man and citizen) and notions of equality, fraternity and
liberty inspired the nationalist movements.
o Since all the educated Indians knew English, it was easier for them to communicate with
the different parts of the country.
o Social reforms and efforts to remove social evils, inequality, superstitions, narrow outlook
helped people become aware of their political situation.
o Rediscovery of India’s past also helped gain an immense sense of pride, promoting
national consciousness
 o Educated Indians translated European works and wrote books and journals for spreading
the ideas of democracy and also talked about social, economic and political problems.

• Army:
o British maintained large army to suppress Indian people
o Waged wars against foreign countries with whom Indians had no conflict
o Cost was paid by Indian lives and by revenue collected from India

• Indians did not have a say in the governance and politics of the country.
• Civil services recruitment was rigged and people were let off with petty reasons (Surendranath
Bannerjee).
• Radical hatred was the common feature of subjection by Imperialists. Train compartments,
hospitals, parks were reserved for whites.
• Newspapers, journals and certain books (Italian unification by Mazzini) were banned

What started as an expression of specific grievances and demands gradually developed into a united nation-
wide movement for complete independence from foreign rule.

Formation of Political Associations

Early Political Organisations:

• 1851 – British Indian Association, Calcutta
• 1852 – Bombay Association, Bombay
• 1852 – Madras Native Association, Madras
Early political organisations were mostly help by upper sections but they had a pan Indian character and
sent petitions to Britain advocating for higher administrative positions for Indians.

Regional Political Organisations:

• 1870 - Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Bombay
• 1876 – Indian Association, Calcutta – Surendranath Bannerjee
• 1884 – Madras Mahajan Sabha, Madras
• 1885 – Bombay Presidency Association, Bombay

1878 – Arms Act – forbade Indians from possessing arms (Lord Lytton)
1878 – Vernacular Pess Act (Lord Lytton)
1883 – Ilbert Bill controversy (Lord Rippon)

All India Conferences:

• 1883 – First All India National Conference, Calcutta – Surendranath Bannerjee
• 1883 – Second All India National Conference, Calcutta – Surendranath Bannerjee
• 1885 – 1st All Indian Conference, Bombay – Indian National Congress

Indian National Congress – started 1885 - Bombay

• Formed with the help of Allan Octavian Hume at Gokul Das Tejpal Sanskrit College
• Womesh Chandra Bannerjee was the first President
• Passed 9 resolutions, demanding changes in British policy and reforms in administration
• Dadabhai Naoroji – 3 times president – earliest leaders to recognise the poverty of Indian people
is a result of British economic exploitation – Grand Old Man of India.
• Englishmen were also presidents of the Congress sessions which happened every year
• Women participation also increased

Early phase/ Moderate phase(1885-1905):

 Leaders came from upper sections of the society and did not have an anti-British attitude. They
expected to bring changes by their just demands and passing resolutions. Demands were:

o More powers to legislative councils,

o Elections to legislative councils
o Introduction of legislative councils to more provinces
o Conduction of Civil Service Examinations in India
o Reduction in land revenue and changes in government’s economic policies, reduction in
spending on administration and army
o Freedom of speech and expression

• Initially the INC had members who were upper sections of the society such as industrialists,
traders, lawyers from upper and middle educated class. Gradually, other sections such as
educated lower middle class and lower sections of the society had joined. It turned into a mass
movement gradually.
• Lal – Bal – Pal criticized the moderates’ policy and advocated for the attainment of Swaraj. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak – “Swaraj is my birthright and I must have it”. Kesari newspaper. Organised
hartals and boycott of foreign goods
• From a movement of small sections of the society it turned into an active movement in which
millions participated with the aim of attaining freedom.

British attitude towards INC

• They recognised INC as a seditious group and advocated that there was no unification among
Indians or a common cause.
• According to them, INC was only a minority group and did not represent the majority interests
• Lord Curzon tried to dissolve INC by his “divide and rule” policy – partition of Bengal
• They also tried to create a rift between Hindus and Muslims and dissuaded Muslims from joining
• They became increasingly hostile towards the Congress

Struggle for Swaraj

Moderates – G K Gokahle, Surendranath Bannerjee, Feroz Shah Mehta
Extremists – Lal-Bal-Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh

World events like Ethiopian win over Italy, Japan’s victory over Russia, Russian revolution influenced the
Indian people.

Partition of Bengal:
• Bengal was the largest province – Bengal, Orissa and Bihar. It was said to divide Bengal for
administrative purposes but the real aim was to suppress the national movement and create a rift
between Hindus and Muslims
• Eastern parts of Bengal was separated and added to Assam creating a new province
• Surendranath Bannerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal and Abdul Rasul were prominent leaders
• Rabindranath Tagore observed this day as the day of unity and solidarity of Indian people
• Hindus, Muslims and Christians tied Rakhi
• New methods of Swaraj and Boycott movements were introduced.
• Methods of nationalist movement became more radical unlike the expectations of the British

Swadeshi and Boycott movements:

• Swadeshi – use of Indian goods & Boycott – foreign goods
• Started as a means to end the partition of Bengal but became a means to attain freedom
 • These were supported by Congress session of 1905 (Benaras- G K Gokhale) and 1906 (Calcutta-
Dadabhai Naoroji) – a sign of moderate to extremist change
• It spread to many parts of the country and British cloth, sugar and other goods were boycotted
• Although the moderates and extremists were united against the partition of Bengal, the moderates
did not want these methods to be normalised, only to be used under special circumstances. They
believed that the new Liberal party with Morley as the SIS could be persuaded to meet the Indian
demands. But the extremists differed.
• V O C Pillai started the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company
• 1906 session of Congress was the most important session where it openly declared for the first
time the attainment of Swaraj or Self-Government under British rule like Canada and Australia.
• 1907 – Surat session – Surat split between the moderates and extremes. Congress was dominated
by moderates and extremists left.

Morley Minto Reforms – Indian Councils Act of 1909

• Number of elected members in provincial councils increased but the electorate was upper class
• Introduced communal electorates for Muslims. Used communalism as a means to weaken Indians
• It did not do anything for attainment of Swaraj demanded by the Congress
• Congress accepted the reforms but vehemently opposed the Communal Representation
• Govt. Started accepting people of choice to high administrative positions. Satyendra Prasanna
Sinha was the first person to be on the Governor-General’s Executive Council and later also made
the Governor of a province – only person to be ever appointed.
• 1911 – Delhi Darbar – Partition of Bengal was annulled and British capital shifted from Calcutta
to Delhi (to suppress movement in Calcutta). Attended by the Queen and King George V.

Rise and fall of Revolutionaries (1st wave) – Around 1st World War
• Believed in using force, firearms and explosives and formed secret societies.
• Abhinava Bharat Society in Maharashtra and Anushilan Samiti in Bengal were important
• Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Aurobindo Ghosh, Brainda Kuma Ghosh, Madam Bhikaji Cama,
Shyamaji Krishnavarma, Barkatulla Iyer, Lala Hardayal, Rasbehari Bose, Savarkar, Sohan Singh
Bhakna, Obeidulla Sinshi and MN Roy
• They also operated from North America, London, Paris, Berlin.
• Ghadar journal and party started
• Bagha Jatin organised a revolt with the help of Germany
• They did not succeed but inspired people with their fearlessness. Reasons for failure:
o Believed that killing individuals would be able to free the country
o Organised small groups and did not unite the masses
o Failed to see that a powerful empire could not be defeated by individual acts of violence

Formation of Muslim League

• Despite the efforts of the British to create Hindu-Muslim rift, a large number of Muslims joined
Congress
• However, the British convinced the upper class Muslims that their interests were separate and the
national movement is Hindu movement. The extremists who used Hindu religious beliefs for
propagating national consciousness worsened this.
• 1906 – All India Muslim League was formed by Agha Khan and Nawab Salimulla of Dhaka. Its
objectives were:
• Promote loyalty to the government
• Protect and advance the interest of Muslims
• Ensure no communal hatred among Muslims
• However, masses were drawn to nationalist movement. Ulema of Deoband was anti-British from
the very start.
• In 1913, AIML declared that attainment of self-government is its aim as Congress had done.
 • Abul Kalam Azad, Mohammed Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Mazharul Haque were prominent

Nationalist movement during 1st World War (1914-1918)

• Home rule movement was started by Tilak and Annie Besant, joined by Motilal Nehru and C R
Das
• Lucknow pact of 1916 – Congress and AIML came together. Congress accepted separate
reservation for Muslims in councils. Moderates and Extremes were also united.
• 1917 – Montagu declared the Britain’s intentions to introduce ‘self-governing institutions’ and
eventually establish ‘representative government’
• 1917 – Annie Besant – first woman elected as Congress president at Calcutta – welcomed Montagu
announcement
• 1918 – Montagu Chelmsford report proposed administrative reforms which were disappointing.
In a special session of Congress presided by Syed Hasan Imam, the Congress rejected it.
• Another report by Rowlatt Commission on sedition in India suggested new measures of repression
which changed the entire political administration of India.

Emergence of Gandhiji
• Entered Indian scene during the 1st World War. Before that, he fought against racism of whites
against Indian people in South Africa where he developed Satyagraha.
• Satyagraha – undergo any hardship and suffering including imprisonment, non-violent protest
• Activities taken up by Gandhi which made him an undisputed leader of masses:
o 1917, Champaran Satyagraha, Bihar – against excesses of indigo planters on poor peasants
o 1918 – Textile workers of Ahmedabad demanded increase in wages
o 1918 – Peasants of Kheda in Gujarat demanded suspension of land revenue
• Methods adopted by Gandhi which made the national movement truly mass based
o Open defiance of laws
o Boycott of offices
o Boycott of law courts and offices
o Peaceful demonstrations
o Picketing of shops
o Stoppage of business
• Social reforms:
o Advocated against untouchability – in Ashrams, they did all the jobs of so-called
untouchables. Referred to them as Harijans
o Worked for the upliftment of people in villages – Believed that there is no progress of
India without progress of villages as 80% resided in villages
o Promoted village industries and Khadi. Charkha became a symbol of village industries and
later part of the flag of Congress
• Advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and brotherhood

British policy after the war

• Montagu-Chelmsford/GoI Act, 1919 reforms were introduced which was nowhere close to Swaraj
o Legislative Council was separated into Imperial Legislative Assembly and Council of State
o Executive was not responsible to the Legislature
o Dyarchy was introduced – Public Health, Education and less important portfolios were
given to elected ministers and more important ones were reserved for the Governor
o Governor could reject the ministerial advice and the Governor-in-General had unlimited
overriding powers
o The right to vote was given to only 1% of the adult population
• Rowlatt Act was passed in March, 1919 which empowered govt. to arrest anyone without trial
• The acts of repression were called Black Acts
• Gandhiji called for a country wide protest called National Humiliation Day on April 6, 1919
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• On 13 April, 1919 people gathered at J Bagh in protest for the arrest of Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin
Khichlew.
• Without any warning, General Dyer opened fire, causing 1000 deaths and 2000 injured
• In 1940, udham Singh shot Michael O’Dyer when he was the Lt. Governor of Punjab
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood
• 1919 December Congress session was held at Amritsar and joined by large number of peasants
and others

Khilafat and Non Cooperation movement

• Khilafat movement was organised over the injustice done to Turkey after WW1. The Sultan of
Turkey was also regarded as the Caliph which was no more.
• Organised by Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali (Ali brothers), Abul kalam Azad and Hasrat Mohani.
• The Khilafat Committee was joined by Gandhji and worked for:
o Injustice against Turkey
o Injustice against Punjab (J Bagh Massacre)
o Attainment of Swaraj
• 1920, Congress session at Nagpur – adopted a constitution in which A1 – “Attainment of Swarajya
by the people of India by all legitimate and peaceful means” – which is the Non-Cooperation
Movement (NCM). Hindu-Muslim unified.
• NCM stage 1 – renunciation of all honorary titles of the British, boycott of state legislatures,
restrain voting during elections, teachers and students left schools and colleges. Jamia Millia and
Kashi Vidy peeth were estd. by nationalists. Lawyers boycotted courts and foreign cloth was burnt.
Strikes and hartals all over the country.
• Mooplah rebellion by Moplah peasents in Kerala
• NCM stage 2 – 1921 Congress session under Hakim Ajmal Khan – Started by Gandhiji in bardoli.
Refuse to pay taxes, i.e., don't recognise the govt. legitimacy anymore
• Came to an end after violence at Chauri Chaura incident after 22 policemen died in Chauri Chaura,
UP, 1922.
• Gandhiji was arrested and imprisoned for 6 years

Nationalist Movement from 1923-39

There was no nationwide mass struggle after the end of NCM. Due to communal riots, Hindu-Muslim
unity was weakening.

Swaraj Party
• During NCM. Legislatures were boycotted but some of Congress under the leadership of C R Das,
Motilal Nehru, Vithalbhai Patel wanted to be elected to legislatures to bring the change from within.
• Other group was led by Vallabhai Patel, C Rajagopalachari and Rajendra Prasad wanted to engage
in the Constructive Programme.
• 1922 session at Gaya, presided by C R Das – Congress rejected the proposal for entering
legislatures.
• 1923 – Congres Khilafat Swaraj Party or Swaraj Party was formed. The Swarajists won a large
number of seats in the legislatures and kept the anti-British spirit alive. They made it very difficult
for the British to pass laws.

The Constructive Programme

• According to the Constructive Programme, the important motives was
o Wearing and spread of Khadi
o Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity
 o Removal of untouchability
• Compulsory to every Congress committee member to wear Khadi and spin 2000 yards of yarn
every month
• All India Spinner’s Association was set up and Khaddar Bhandars opened in the country
• Gandhi considered Khadi as the means of liberation of the poor

Movements of Peasants and Workers

Peasants
• Kisan Sabhas were organised throughout the country against oppression of Zamindars
• Alluri Sitaramaraju led a revolt of peasants and tribal in Andhra
• 1928-Vallabhai Patel led peasants in Bardoli against increase in land revenue
• 1936 - First all India organisation of peasants – All India Kisan Sabha. This created links between
demands of peasants and freedom struggle
• The struggle of peasants made it a truly mass movement and their griveances against govt. and
landlords, added to the national struggle
Workers
• 1918 – first major trade union – Madras Labour Union
• 1920 – Bombay – first all India organisation of workers – AITUC. Key role by N M Joshi. First
session to Lala Lajpat Rai. C R Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, J C Bose were presidents of AITUC

Both workers and peasants were influenced by socialistic ideas and they deeply influenced the social and
economic objectives of the freedom struggle.

Spread of Socialism
• The international revolutions(America, France and Russia) spread the ideas of socialism, especially
the Russian revolution called out for establishing social and economic equality of all and opposed
the imperialist rule.
• M N Roy, S A Dange, Singaravelu, Shaukat Usmani, Muzaffar Ahmed were popularising the ideas
of socialism. Some of these groups formed the Communist Party of India in 1925.
• J Nehru was the most prominent leader helped in spread of socialist ideas. In 1934, he formed the
Congress Socialist party within the Congress which played an important role in organising peasants
and workers.

Revolutionary movements – 2nd wave- 1920s to 1930s

• New revolutionary wave started due to the frustration from withdrawal of NCM.
• Hindustan Republican Association was formed by Sachin Sayal, Jogesh Chatterjee to organise
armed rebellion,
• 1925 – Kakori Conspiracy Case- Ram prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh and Rajendra
Lahiri – sentenced to death
• 1928 – Chandra Shekhar Azad converted HRA into Hindustan Socialist Republican Army. Bhagat
Singh was a prominent leader.
• 1928 – Killed Saunders, policeman responsible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai
• 1929 – Bhagar Singh and B K Dutt threw bombs in Central Legislative Assembly as a sign of
protest and raised slogan, “Inquilab Zindabad” – got arrested.
• Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev sentenced to death in March, 1931
• Chandra Shekhar Azad was shot in Allahabad
• 1930 - Indian Revolutionary Army raided police armory in Chittagong – Surya Sen and Tarakeswar
Dastidar were arrested
• Punjab – Hari Kishan tried to kill the Governor
• Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Dutt – two girls played prominent role in revolutionary activities
• After realising the futility of violence, they were dawn to the ideas of socialism and some joined
communist parties
 • They were constant source of inspiration and taught the importance of self-sacrifice and courage.
Prepared the country for the next phase of struggle.

Emergence of new leaders

• Young leaders emphasised on organising the masses and clarified the aims of the nationalist
movement. Advocated that independence is must for removing backwardness and poverty
• Influenced by socialist ideas and anti-imperialist foreign policy of USSR and its progress
• Jawaharlal Nehru – one of the first leaders to recognise the suffering of people in princely states
and made these people part of the nationalist movement
• S C Bose – Resigned ICS after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and participated in the national
struggle, NCM. Popularly known as Netaji.
• They were not satisfied with Swaraj and emphasised for complete independence. The nationalist
movement became increasingly militant under their influence.

Demand for Complete Independence/ Purna Swaraj

• 1927 - Simon Commission was vehemently rejected by the people as there was no Indian member
and the report mentioned nowhere of Swaraj. Lala Lajpat Rai was injured and succumbed after
beatings in the protests.
• 1927 - Madras Congress session headed by M A Ansari & AIML boycotted the Commission.
• Indian Independence League was created and led by J Nehru, S C Bose, Srinivas Iyengar, Sarat
Chandra Bose. It advocated for Complete Independence.
• 1928 – Although Congress passed a resolution in 1927 for complete independence, it passed a
resolution demanding a dominion status in 1928 under the presidentship of Motilal Nehru at
Calcutta. It gave a one year ultimatum.
• 1928 – Congress session presided by J Nehru. After the one year ultimatum ended, Gandhi
declared that in A1 of the Congress constitution, Swaraj meant complete independence. They also
launched the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM).
• The Congress also declared 26th January to be the Independence Day every year.

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Launched on 26th Jan, 1930 by Gandhiji with the famous Dandi March and broke the Salt Law.
• Led by C Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and Sarojini Naidu in Dharsana, Gujarat
• Characterised by demonstrations and Hartals, boycott of foreign goods, refusal to pay taxes
• In NWFP, it was led by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, known as Frontier Gandhi (Sarhadi Gandhi)
• 1930 – 1st Round Table Conference not attended by Congress to discuss the reforms proposed by
Simon Commission but no conclusion reached
• Lord Irwin convinced Gandhi of attend the 2nd RTC. Govt. will release prisoners and Gandhi will
pause CDM. Congress did not like this but approved at Karachi session led by Vallabhai Patel.
They also passed important resolution on FRs and economic policy. Gandhi was the only
representative at 2nd RTC and no conclusion was reached.
• 1934 – CDM was withdrawn but Congress demanded that an elected Constituent Assembly is
required for framing the Constitution of India.
• This is the second great mass struggle in the country

Movements in (562) Princely States

• Conditions of people in states was worse than the rest of the country. Forced labour was prevalent
and no efforts made to improve poverty, education etc. while the princes lived extravagant lives
• 1920s, the states’ people demanded democracy, reforms in administration, rule of law and to end
ruler’s oppression
• Praja Mandals were formed in states, starting Rajasthan under Vijay Singh Pathik and Manikya Lal.
In 1927, they came together as All India States people’s Conference. Balwant Rai Mehta, founder
 of Praja Mandal in Bhavnagar in Gujarat, became the Secretary. They demanded that Indian states
must be part of Indian nation.
• Important leaders:
o Jai Narayan Vyas and Jamnalal Bajaj in Rajasthan
o Sarangadhar Das in Orissa
o Annie Mascarene and Pattom Thanu in Travancore
o Shaikh Mohammed Abdullah in Jammu Kashmir
o Ramananda Tirtha in Hyderabad
o Sewa Singh Tikriwala in Punjab
• During the RTC, princes opposed steps which lead to freedom of the country. And after they
realised that the freedom was imminent, they demanded independence. Supported communal
organisations to break their unity.
• Congress had a policy of non-interference in states but several members participated in states’
peoples movements. 1938 – SC Bose president – declared that the Purna Swaraj was for entire
country including the states and their people would have the same social, economic, political rights.
• J Nehru was made the President of All India States people’s Conference in 1939.

Communal Parties and their Role

• 1915 – Formation of Hindu Mahasabha.
• The communalist ideas started spreading from 1920s. Communal Riots happened and in 1924,
Gandhi fasted to bring peace but in 1931, there were massive riots in Kanpur. Ganesh Shankar
Vidyarthi martyred for Hindu-Muslim unity
• From 1924- AIML stopped having sessions with Congress simultaneously
• Sikh communal leaders also started raising communal demands. Communal representation was
extended to Sikhs in 1932.
• Some communal parties were not anti-British. Did not believe in social reforms and in nationalist
struggle. According to them, interests of people of India were not common. This led to harmful
consequences:
o They advanced two nation theory – for Hindus and Muslims
o Questioned the very basis of Indian brotherhood
o They rejected the rich cultural unity of Indian people for hundreds of years. They denied
the entire history of Indian people.
• AIML, under the leadership of Mohd. Ali Jinnah claimed that they were the sole representatives
of Muslims in India. 1940 Lahore session, they demanded a separate state of Pakistan for Muslims.
The Hindu Mahasabha also declared that Hindus in India constituted the nation.
• Majority of Muslims including Muslim leaders were opposed to the idea of two nations.
• The Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, Christians, and others had same problems of poverty, backwardness
and illiteracy. It was only possible to remove them through freedom and unity.

Movements of the Depressed Classes

• Major movements occurred in Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu such as temple entry
movement.
• E V Ramaswamy Naicker/ Periyar (Self Respect Movement), K Kelappan, T K Madhavan, Babu
Jagjivan Ram were important figures.
• BRA – took part in RTCs and pressed for provisions advocating the interests of Depressed Classes
• Gandhiji set up many organisations such as Anti-Untouchability League. He called them Harijans
and started a journal Harijan.
• 1932 – McDonald Communal Award – opposed by Gandhiji and went on fast in jail and later
withdrawn and assured that the untouchable classes would get adequate representation.
• The Indian Nationalist movement believed that economic upliftment lead to social upliftment of
the people. Hence, it was important for DCs to get economic freedom to gain social upliftment.

Indian Nationalist Movement and the World

 • Indian National Movement drew inspiration from around the world. Many people including British
supported us.
• International Organisations:
o Dadabhai Naoroji started an organisation in England in 19th C and gained their support
o Indian Leagues were formed in USA, Britain and other countries
o V K Krishna Menon played an important role in gaining support of British
• INM did not have hatred towards the British but only against the rulers.
• Indians saw their struggle as a part of people’s struggle everywhere around the world for freedom,
democracy and social equality.
• They also developed an international outlook. J Nehru played a leading role in this by making
people awake of world developments. According to him freedom is indivisible, and no nation is
free until every nation is free. Indivisible are peace and democracy and prosperity. 1927 – Congress
of Oppressed Peoples was held in Brussels, Belgium attended by J Nehru.
• League Against Imperialism was formed as an international organisation.
• Indians also supported Chinese against Japanese imperialism and also Palestine and Spain. In Spain,
J Nehru and V K Menon joined the International Brigade.
• They knew that imperialism and Fascism is a threat to everyone.
• The cause of freedom and democracy became dear to Indians and it also shaped our foreign policy
after independence.

The Act of 1935 and National Movement

• Congress attended only the 2nd RTC and demanded for a constituent assembly elected by the
Indians. However, the govt. passed GoI Act, 1935 which had several changes:
o India would become a federation if 50% of the princely states decided to join it but it was
never implemented.
o Increased the provincial authority by provincial autonomy. Executive was responsible to
the legislature and powers of legislature increased.
o Right to vote was limited to only 14% of the population.
• However, it never mentioned the dominion status or independence or constituent assembly.
• In 1936 Lucknow session under J Nehru – Congress rejected the GoI Act, 1935. However it
decided to participate in the elections.
• The elections became an important occasion to mobilise people on political, social and economic
issues. 1937, Congress swept the polls and formed ministries and worked towards many social
welfare schemes.
• However, it was opposed by J Nehru and S C Bose as they wanted complete independence. SC
Bose left Congress in 1939 and joined the Forward Bloc.
• India entered the final phase of freedom struggle.

Achievement of Independence
• The British Govt. dragged India into war without the consent of the people. Congress leaders
were opposed to fascist and imperialist policies and offered to help on the condition that India
be made an independent nation. But the Govt. refused. In response to this, Congress resigned
from all its ministries in 1939.
• 1940 – Congress session at Ramgarh, Congress launched the Individual Satyagraha movement-
Vinoba Bhave was the first one. Shrikrishna Sinha, C Rajagopalachari and others arrested.
• 1942 – War compelled British to open talks with India and Sir Stafford Cripps came to India as
Cripps Mission, which was a failure. The British did not agree to form a national govt. but agreed
to a constituent assembly. However, it will not be elected and will contained nominated princes.

Quit India Movement – 1942 – Do or Die

• Quit India Movement is the third great mass struggle in Indian history.
 • All India Congress Committee in Bombay passed a resolution to end British rule immediately.
• It also mentioned that it would help in the war once the govt. was established.
• “Do or Die” - Gandhiji. There was terror, fury and suffering all over the country and some parts
of the country gained independence from British rule and formed their own governments.
• Revolutionary activities were led by jai Prakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, S M Joshi, Ram
Manohar Lohia.

Azad Hind Fauj/ Indian National Army/ Indian Independence League

• Rash Behari Bose set up the Indian Independence League with the help of Indian prisoners of
Britain and Indians in S E Asia.
• 1943, S C Bose came to Singapore and rebuilt the INA. It comprised 45,000 soldiers. He created
a provisional government of India in Singapore.
• 1944, entered North East and Andaman and tried to oust the British. However, the attempt to
liberate India failed.
• Slogans of “Delhi Chalo” and “Jai Hind” were a source of inspiration.
• Women’s regiment led by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan was called the Rani Jhansi Regiment.
• S C Bose died in an air crash and the WW2 ended in 1945.

Nationalist upsurge after the war

• Britain was reduced to a position of a second rate power. Democracy and freedom was the new
political atmosphere and it was no longer possible to suppress independence movements.
• British Govt. tried 3 officers of INA – Shah Nawaz Khan, P K Sehgal and G S Dhillon but later
sentences were remitted.
• 1946 – Royal Indian Navy revolted at many places.
• Due to rising popular upsurge against the British and the spread of discontent in the armed
forces, it was the end for British.

Coming of Independence
• 1946 – British Govt. announced end of rule over India.
• Cabinet Mission was sent to discuss transfer of power. Proposed interim govt. headed by J Nehru
and Constituent Assembly composed of members elected by provincial legislatures and nominees
of Indian States. Muslim League and Princes refused to participate in the discussions of Constituent
Assembly.
• Viceroy Mountbatten, presented a plan for the division of India into 2 independent states of India
and Pakistan.
• 1946 – Communal riots in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay where thousands of Hindus and Muslims
were killed. Due to hatred advocated by the communal parties and British.
• Congress accepted the partition as there was no other way to gain independence.
• West Punjab, East Bengal, NWFP and Sindh were formed into Pakistan.

Immediate tasks after independence

• States dept. under Sardar Vallabhai Patel brought accession of all states except J&K, Hyderabad
and Junagarh.
o J&K people considered themselves as Indians. Indian army defeated Pakistani raiders and
J&K became part of India.
o Nawab of Junagarh fled to Pakistan and people voted in favour of becoming an Indian
state.
o 1948 – Hyderabad was acceded by police action.
• French possessions – Mahe, Karaikal, Yanam, Pondicherry and Chandernagore
o 1948 – Mahe acceded
o 1949 – Chandernagore
o 1954 – rest of French possessions voted for merger with India
• Portuguese colonies – Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli
 o Tristao Braganza Cunha – father of nationalist movement in Goa – formed Goa Congress
Committee in 1928
o 1954 – freedom fighters liberated Dadra and Nagar Haveli
o 1955 – Satyagraha movement was launched in Gia and Indian troops finally occupied Goa
after Portuguese surrendered.
• After the partition, several economic problems arose.
o Shortage of raw materials for many industries – jute and cotton growing areas went to
Pakistan – shut down of textile factories
o Wheat and Rice producing areas went to Pakistan and shortage of food grains
o Large part of irrigated areas went to Pakistan