CHAPTER SEVEN

RESERVOIR AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

KATHFORD COLLEG OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

BALKUMARI, LALITPUR

1
 INTRODUCTION
The treated water is supplied to the consumers through a system of reservoirs and pipe
networks which is known as distribution system.
 The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate
quality, quantity & pressure.
 The distribution system should be well planned to carry a specific rate of flow to meet
the water demand of the community at a requisite pressure.
 Service or distribution reservoir to store water for equalization of demand and stabilizing
the pressure
 Network of pipes to convey water to the community
 Valves to control and regulate the flows.
 Pumps to lift the water from lower level to higher level.
 Fire hydrants to supply water during fires.
 Service connection to deliver water to households
 Public stand post to deliver water who don not have private connection and
 Meters to measures the quantity of water supplied.
 Systems of supply:
1. Continuous system:
2. Intermittent system:
Continuous system Intermittent system
The water is supplied to the city during all 24 Water is supplied only during fixed hours of the day
hours, of all day. which are normally morning and evening hours

No doubt this is best system since water is available Timing of the supply may be changed to suit the
as and when it is needed but leads to the more climatic or seasonal conditions.
wastages of water people using it do not posses' This is the most common system adopted in Nepal.
civic sense and do not understand importance of
water.
Water is not stagnant in the pipe at any instant, and This system is adopted if:
hence fresh water is always available.  sufficient pressure is not available
 sufficient quantity of water is not available at the
source to meet the demand
Adequate quantity of water is also available for fire This system should not be installed on permanent
fighting basis and steps should be taken to change it to the
continuous system as far as possible.
The drawbacks of intermittent system: Advantages of intermittent system:
 Domestic storage: The public must store water  Maintenance and repair work can be done easily during
for non supply hours which is likely to get non supply hours
contaminated.  The wastage of water due to leakage is less.
 Fire demand: During the fire breakdown, this  During natural calamities, emergencies and system
system fails to supply water which may cause breakdown, the water stored for domestic purpose can
huge damage. be utilized for few days to fulfill the immediate needs.
 Pollution in supply: suction through leakage
during non supply period
 Size of pipe: larger diameter of pipes will be
required
 Wastage from water taps: taps may be left
open unknowingly or due to negligence
 Number of valves: a large number of valves
for its working if different zones needs to be
properly regulated.
 Staff requirements
 Number of valves
 Methods of Water Distribution system:

1. Gravity system:
 Pure water reservoir is located at certain
elevation than the target community
 Suitable when the source is river or
impounded reservoir at sufficient height
than the city.
 Usually pumping of water is not required
at any stage of the distribution.
 This method is the most reliable method.
 Minimum leakage since the water flow
under the gravity
2. Pumping system:
 Water has to be pumped and then
directly sent to the public.
 The pumps may be used at different
speed to meet different demand o water.
 A number of pumps are established and
only some of them are always used.
 Suitable if the intake source is not
located at very high elevation than the
target community.
 Becomes very expensive for the long
term use
 If electric pumps are used, the water
may be insufficient when the power
fails.
3. Dual system:
 Also called combined gravity and pumping
system.
 Water is collected in the elevated water
reservoir and water is supplied from there.
 When the water demand is low water is sent
directly from the reservoir and when the
water demand increases the water is pumped
to the public.
 In this case, two pumps, one to elevate the
water and the other to distribute the water,
are to be installed. Therefore, this method is
called dual system of distribution.
 Most reliable and economical one to supply
the water as per the requirement
 Reservoirs
 Basins or tanks used to store the water for various purposes
Necessity of reservoir tank
 Although the village water needs are based upon a minimum requirement of 45 liters
per person per 24-hour day, just about all this water will be demanded during daylight, a
period of l0-12 hours.
A system will require a reservoir when:
 The safe yield of the source will not directly provide 0.225 LPS for each tap;
 The daily water demand is greater than the yield of the source during the daylight
hours;
 The pipeline distance from source to village is so far that it is more economical to use a
smaller pipe safe and build a reservoir tank
 Types of reservoir: Depending on function/purpose

Clear water reservoir: Service reservoir:

 The tank in which filtered or treated  The reservoir which stores the treated water
water is collected after treatment is for supplying water to distribution system to
known as the clear water reservoir. It meet the fluctuation in demand of water,
is generally located below the ground. stores water required during emergencies
 After this reservoir actual distribution like fire breakdown, repairs, etc. is called
phase is started. service reservoir or storage reservoir or
 Clear water reservoir should have distribution reservoir.
capacity of 14 to 16 hours of daily  Service reservoir should be located near to
water demand the community
 Types of service reservoirs:
Based on situation with Based on constructing Based on shape of
respect to ground material reservoir

1. Surface reservoirs 1. RCC reservoir 1. Rectangular reservoir

2. Elevated reservoirs/ 2. Steel reservoir 2. Circular reservoir
Overhead tank 3. Stone masonry reservoir 3. Square reservoir
4. Brick masonry reservoir 4. Spherical reservoir
5. Ferro cement reservoir 5. Cylindrical reservoir
6. HDPE reservoir
7. PVC reservoir
 Construction of Service Reservoir
Surface Reservoir
 Surface reservoir are circular or rectangular reservoir in shape which are constructed at ground
level or below the ground level usually known as ground reservoir or non elevated reservoirs.
 The stored water is pumped to the overhead tank using pump and supplied to the community
using gravity supply however reservoir already at higher elevation can supply water directly to
the community.
 Generally, surface reservoir are constructed in two compartment so that it can be used
alternatively. These compartments can be connected using control valves.
 The inlet pipe discharges water facing downward so that pressure head is dissipated in water and
wall are prevented from erosion.
 Overflow pipes are provided at full supply level so as to maintain a constant level of water in the
reservoir.
 Ventilator are provided in the roof slab so as to affect free circulation of air over the water
surface in the reservoir .
 Some quantity of sludge may be present in the stored water which will be deposited in the
reservoir which can be removed by occasional cleaning through washout pipes, generally, outlet
pipes are at higher level 10 cm above than that of the washout pipes.
Construction of Service Reservoir
Construction of Service Reservoir
Construction of Service Reservoir
 Construction of Service Reservoir
Elevated tank
 The elevated reservoir are constructed at an elevation from ground level. These
reservoirs are also known as overhead tanks or elevated tanks.
 These reservoir may be rectangular, circular or elliptical in shape however due to
advancement in computation approach any shape of elevated tank can be approached
however it should be properly analyzed.
 The RCC tank known as Intz tank is generally adopted for the elevated tank.
 The water is pumped to elevated tank from the reservoir and supplied to the consumer
Components of elevated tank
 Inlet pipe for the entry of water
 Outlet pipe for the exit of the water
 Overflow pipe for the exit of water above full supply level
 Ladders to reach the top of reservoir and then to the bottom of reservoir for inspection
 Manholes in the top cover or roof of reservoir for providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection.
 Washout pipe or drainpipe for removing water after cleaning of reservoir.
 Ventilators for free circulation of air
 Water level indicator for indicating from outside the depth of water in reservoir.
 A lightening conductor for protection against lightening.
Parts/Accessories of Intz tank
 Inlet pipe: for the entry of water.
 Overflow pipes: provided at full supply level – to maintain the constant supply level
 Ventilators: provided in the roof slab
 Washouts pipes: provided at the bottom. Treated water may contain some solid, which
will be deposited in the reservoir; deposited sludge can be removed occasionally cleaning
through washout pipes.
 Outlet pipes: for the exit of water, placed at a slightly higher level say (at least 10cm)
above than that of the washout pipes.
 Ladders
 Manholes at the top for providing entry to the inside reservoir for inspection
 Water level indicator
A lighting conductor
 Water consumption pattern:
 The variation in water consumption pattern refers to the variation in the amount of water
consumed with respect to time.
 The pattern depends on geographic location, people’s habit, climatic conditions etc, it also
varies at different time s even in a day, morning, noon and evening.
 The water consumption pattern recommended by the department of water supply and
sewerage (DWSS) guidelines for the rural area of Nepal.

Hours Daily demand in %

5:00 -7:00 25
7:00 – 12:00 35
12:00 -17:00 20
17:00 – 19:00 20
19:00 – 5:00 Negligible
 Capacity determination of Service Reservoir
The storage capacity of service reservoir or distribution reservoir depends on the three
requirements.
Balancing or equalizing reservoir
 The balancing reservoir is that quantity of water which is required for balancing the variable
demand in the distribution system. It is conventionally calculated using mass curve or
hydrograph indicating the hourly rate of consumption. The approach of calculation is
analytical method using microcomputers.
Breakdown reserve
 The amount of water required to be stored which may be utilized for breakdown periods thus
called breakdown reservoir. The quantity of break down reserve is difficult to quantify
however it should be more than 25% of total storage capacity.
Fire reserve
 The water stored in the distribution reservoir for firefighting purpose is known as fire
reserve. The amount of fire reserve can be determined from the following expression.
R = [F-P]T
Where, R = reserve storage in liters, F = fire demand in liters/minutes, P= reserve fire pumping
capacity in liters/minutes and T= duration of fire in minutes.
 Capacity determination of Service Reservoir

Inflow/supply to the Outflow/demand from the

Case
reservoir reservoir
A Continuous Continuous
B Continuous Intermittent
C Intermittent Continuous
D Intermittent Intermittent
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
 Layouts of Distribution system
The distribution system is a network of pipelines that conveys water to the users.
Individual households make connections in the distribution system to get water.
Layouts of the distribution system depends on the layout of the roads in the
community which are mentioned as shown below:
1. Dead end system
2. Grid iron system
3. Ring system
4. Radial system
1. Dead end or tree system:
 This system contains one main line and
several pipes branching from it.
 These sub mains can be connected at the
both side of the main line and again other
branches start from these sub mains which
lead to the individual buildings.
 This method is suitable for the irregularly
developed towns.
 It is the cheapest method and easy in
determination of pipe diameter and valves.
But this method can create dead end and
maintenance problem. This method of
distribution system is not effective towards
the fire demand.
2. Grid iron system:
 It is also called reticulated system and it is most
convenient system for rectangular type of settlement.
 In this system all dead ends are inter-connected and the
water freely circulates throughout the mains.
 It is modified method over the dead end.
 Main line runs along the major road and sub mains
branch to the side roads.
 The sub mains are again collected at the main line so
the disadvantage of dead-end system is eliminated in this
method.
 In this system only less area is affected during repairing
works. Dead end problems are completely eliminated so
that the water does not remain stagnant. During the fire
break down the water can be diverted towards the
affected area from both directions. But the distribution
pipe required is longer and valve fitting is also more. So
it increases the overall cost. During the maintenance
work several numbers of valves have to be close
3. Circular or ring system:
 This system can be adopted in a well-
planned city.
 In this system, each locality is divided
into number of square or circular blocks
and the distribution mains are laid around
the four sides of the block.
 The branches, sub mains, etc. are laid in
the inner road. In this system every point
of the city receives the water from two
directions.
 This system is the easier for lying out but
it involves too much number of valves
and pipe lengths.
4. Radial system:
 This method can be adopted if the city
settlement is radial in nature.
 In this system the water flows from a
central reservoir to the other outer
periphery.
 The entire city is divided into the
various zones. Each of the zones
contains a central reservoir which
distributes water in the corresponding
zone only.
 This system gives very quick
satisfactory water supply and reliability
during the maintenance period.
System Advantages Disadvantages
(i) It is a simple method of water (j) In view of the existence of dead ends, sediments
distribution accumulates causing taste and odour problems if
(ii) The design is also simple (iii) the the pipe is not flushed regularly,
pipe dimensions are economical ii) During repair work, water supply to the area
receiving water from the pipe is cut of.
Dead End (iii) Insufficient water pressure occurs frequently
(i) No stagnation occurs, and water (i) More pipe fittings are required (valves required)
flour in different direction. (ii) The calculation of pipe sizes is more
Grid (ii) During repairs, water is not complicated
disrupted. iii. layout requires longer length of pipes.
iii. plenty of water available during It involves too much number of valves.
fire.
Circular Same as grid system Same as grid
Radial i. gives very quick satisfactory water Central reserve
supply
ii. reliable during the maintenance
period
 Design of distribution system:
Pipe hydraulics
 Continuity equation
 Bernoulli’s equation
Continuity equation:
Based on principle of mass conservation, continuity equation is
Q =AV = V x πD2/4
Where, Q = discharge through the pipe, A = cross sectional area of the pipe, d=
diameter of the pipe and V = velocity of flow in the pipe.
Head Loss
 Major Head loss
 Minor Head loss
 Design of distribution system:
Pipe hydraulics
Bernoulli’s equation in the energy or head available at the inlet section of pipe is equated
to the energy or head available at the exit section of the pipe, plus the energy or head lost
and minus the energy or head added between the inlet and exit sections of the pipe. When
water flows through a pipe resistance is offered to the flowing water, which result in
causing a loss of energy or head. The various energy or head losses in pipes may be
classified as
Major Head loss
Minor Head loss
 The major loss of energy or head as water flows through the pipe is caused by friction.
This is regarded as major loss because in case of longer pipeline the loss of energy or
head incurred by this loss is much higher than other losses.
 The friction loss can be determined by using methods such as Darcy Weisbach formula,
Manning formula and Hazen Williams formula.
 Design of distribution system:
Darcy Weisbach Formula
This is most commonly used formulae for determining the loss of energy of head in pipe
due to friction. According to this formula the loss in head in pipes due to friction is given as
hf =flV2/2gd (since, V= Q/A)
hf =flQ2/2g(pi*d2/4)2
hf = flQ2/12.1d5
In which, hf = head loss in m, L = length of pipe in m, d = diameter of pipe in m, V = mean
velocity of flow through pipe in m/s, Q = discharge through the pipe in m3/s, g =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 and f = friction factor which is dimension less.
The value of friction factor f may be obtained by the following equation given by
Colebrook and white.
1/sqrt(f) = -2log10[k/3.7*d + 2.51/Re*sqrt(f)]
In which, k = roughness of the pipe material, Re = Reynold’s number = V*d/Ʋ and Ʋ =
kinematic viscosity of water.
 Design of distribution system:
Darcy Weisbach Formula
As the pipe becomes older the roughness increases due to friction. The roughness increases
with time approximately in accordance with the following expression.
k = k0 + αt
In which k0 is the roughness of the new pipe material, k is the roughness at any time t, and
α is rate of increase of roughness with time.
 Design of distribution system:
Manning’s Formula
This is commonly used formulae for gravity conduits channels, but it is also used for pipes
or pressure conduits. According to this formula the loss in head in pipes due to friction is
given as
V = 1/n*R2/3*S1/2
In which, V = mean velocity of flow through the pipes in m/s, R = Hydraulic mean depth of
pipe in m, S =slope of energy grade line or head loss per unit length of pipe m, n = Manning
roughness or rugosity coefficient.
For the pipes, the hydraulic mean depth is obtained as
R = A/P = pi*d2/4/pi*d = d/4
If hf is the loss of head in m due to friction in a pipe of length in m then the slope of energy
grade line S may be expresses as
S = hf/L , hf = S*L
hf = n2*L*V2/(d/4)4/3
hf = 6.35*n2*L*V2/d4/3 = 6.35*n2*L*Q2/(pi*d2/4)*d4/3 = 10.294*n2*L*Q2/d16/3
 Design of distribution system:
Hazen Williams Formula
This is commonly used formulae for pipes or pressure conduits design. According to this
formula the loss in head in pipes due to friction is given as
V = 0.849*C*R0.63*S0.54
In which, V = mean velocity of flow through the pipes in m/s, R = Hydraulic mean depth of
pipe in m, S =slope of energy grade line or head loss per unit length of pipe m, C=
roughness or rugosity coefficient.
If hf is the loss of head in m due to friction in a pipe of length in m then the slope of energy
grade line S may be expresses as
S = hf/L , hf = S*L
hf = n2*L*V2/(d/4)4/3
hf = 6.843*L/d1.367*(V/C)1.852 = 10.68*L/d4.87*(Q/C)1.852
 Design of distribution system:
Loss of energy or head in pipes due to other causes-Minor losses
1. Loss of energy or head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe is given as
hL = (V1-V2)2/2g
In which V1 and V2 are the mean velocities of flow in the smaller and larger section of
the pipe respectively.

2. Loss of energy or head due to sudden contraction in a pipe is give as

hL = 0.5*(V2/2g),
V is the mean velocity of low in the smaller section of the pipe
3. Loss of energy or head at the entrance to a pipe is given as
hL = 0.5*(V2/2g),
V is the mean velocity of low in the smaller section of the pipe

4. Loss of energy or head at the exit from a pipe is given as

hL = (V2/2g),
V is the mean velocity of low in the smaller section of the pipe
 Design of distribution system:
Loss of energy or head in pipes due to other causes-Minor losses
5. Loss of energy or head due to gradual contraction or enlargement in a pipe is given as
hL = k(V1-V2)2/2g
In which V1 and V2 are the mean velocities of flow in the smaller and larger section of the
pipe respectively and k is a coefficient the value of which depends on the angle of
convergence or divergence and on the ratio of the smaller and larger cross-sectional area of
pipe.
6. Loss of energy or head in the bend provided in a pipe is given as
hL = kV2/2g
In which V is the mean velocities of flow in the bend and k is a coefficient the value of
which depends on the total angle of the bend and the relative radius of curvature (R/d)
where R is the radius of curvature of the pipe axis and d is the diameter of the pipe.
7. Loss of energy or head in various pipe fittings such as valves
hL = kV2/2g
In which V is the mean velocities of flow in the bend and k is a coefficient the value of
which depends on the type of pipe fittings.
 Design Criteria
Velocity
The velocity of low in the pipe should be neither too low not too high. At low, velocity the
suspended particles present in water will settle down in the pipe thus by causing the obstruction to
the flow of water. The high velocity of low is not desirable because of the abrasion of the suspended
particles with the interior surface of pipe will be causing the erosion of the pipes.
Minimum velocity = 0.3 m/s and Maximum velocity = 3 m/s, the minimum velocity of untreated
water is 0.6 m/s.

Pressure
The pressure in the distribution system should be neither too low nor too high. The low pressure
will result either low flow or water will not rise to desired height where high pressure in the
distribution requires higher pressure rating pipes to prevent it from bursting which would be costly.
For system with private connection, minimum pressure = 15 m
For system without private connections, minimum pressure = 5m
At public stand post, desirable pressure = 15 m
At public stand post, absolute minimum pressure = 5m
At public stand post, maximum pressure = 55m
 Design Criteria
Pipe size
The commercially available pipe sizes are given below pipe diameter in mm: 15,20,25,32,40,50,63,
65,80,100,125,150,200,250,300,350,400,450,500,600,700,800,900,1000,1200,1400,1600,1800,2000
,2200,2400,2600,2800 and 3000
Design steps:
- Maps and surveys
- Tentative layout
- Discharge in the pipes
- Calculation of pipe diameters
- Computation of residual pressure and velocity
Various methods used for the analysis of pipe networks of a distribution
system are:

Branched method
Looped system
 Equivalent pipe method
 Hardy cross method
 Circle method
 Graphical method
 Electrical network analysis method
 Pito-meter distribution studies method
A. Branched System
 Determine the population served by each section
 Determine the discharge to be carried by each section.
 Compute allowable head loss in the [Link] depends on the ground levels , residual head
pressure available in the upstream point and minimum pressure head to be maintained in
the pipe
 Calculate the pipe diameter of pipe in each section. Use Darcy Weisbach or Hazen
Williams equation for this purpose.
 Calculate head loss in each pipe section.
 Check residual pressure and velocity. Change pipe diameter and recalculate if residual
pressure and velocity are not within allowable limits.
 B. Looped System
 Grid, ring and radial system of layout
C Q1 lps

A
D Q lps F
Qlps B

E Q2 lps

 From the figure the residual pressure head at D is equal to the pressure head available at B
minus head loss in the pipes either through BCD or BED. Since, the flow along BCD and
BED are in opposite direction i.e. clockwise and anticlockwise respectively, the algebraic
sum of head losses in the pipes of a loop is zero. The flow in the pipes BCD and BED are
modified repeatedly until sum the head losses in the pipes of a loop is zero.
 In modern distribution system there are number of loops thereby affecting each other. The
design of pipes in a looped system is thus an iterative process and time consuming.
 Hardy cross methods is one of the widely used method for the analysis and design of lopped
system.
 Hardy cross method is a method of successive approximations which involves a controlled
trial and error process. A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops is called as
network of pipes. In any system of pipe network conveying water under pressure the
following three laws are applicable.
1. In each pipe of the network there is a relationship between the head loss in the pipe and
quantity of water flowing through it i.e. hf = k*Q^n where k and n are constants. The value
of k and n for different head loss formula given below.
2. At each junction, the algebraic sum of the quantities of water entering and leaving the
junction is zero. ΣQ = 0
3. In each loop of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head due
to flow in anticlockwise direction. In other words the algebraic sum of head loss of all
pipes in a loop is zero Σhf =0.
 Analysis of pipe network by hardy cross method may be carried out by following two ways.
1. Balancing head by correcting assumed flows (generally adopted)
2. Balancing flows by correcting assumed heads

ΔQ = Σhf/nΣhf/Q (equation of flow corrections ΔQ)

Formulae Head loss k n
Darcy Weisbach fLQ2/12.1*d5 fl/12.1*d5 2
formula
Hazen Williams 10.68*L*Q1.85/d4.87*C1.85 10.68*L/d4.87*C1.85 1.85
Formula
Manning’s formula 10.29*n2*L*Q2/d16/3 10.29*n2*L/d16/3 2
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
END OF CHAPTER SEVEN

45