Module 2: Principles of Design

THEORY OF DESIGN
Ar. MINU AUGUSTINE, [Link]., [Link]. | SCMS SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
MODULE 2
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

how to use the tools to make art

 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
• These are the standards or rules to be
observed by artists in creating works of art

• They are how they create and organize

artwork.

• When elements are utilized with the principles

in mind, outstanding artwork is created.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
1. Contrast

2. Balance

3. Gradation

4. Movement

5. Rhythm

6. Proportion

7. Unity/harmony

8. Variety

9. emphasis
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN - UNITY
Unity: Gestalt Laws, Harmony, Variety, Factors of Coherence, Order in disorder, Gradation.

Short Answer:
1. short note on the principle of Harmony.
2. Why is harmony important in design?
3. Explain Unity and Variety
4. What is the Gestalt law of closure? Explain with an example.

Short Essays:
1. Explain how you can beautify a facade
2. Illustrate the 7 gestalt principles

Long Essays:
1. Sketch and explain the dramatic effect in architecture.
2. Explain the factors of visual coherence
3. Explain the 7 gestalt principles.
UNITY • Unity in art is a principle that ties all elements of
an artwork together, creating a sense of
completeness and harmony.

• Congruity exists among the elements in a design.

• elements look as though they belong together

• Depicts visual connection.

• Composition is ‘harmonious’.

• Unity is achieved through repetition

• unity can exist with either representational

imagery or abstract forms

Representational: images that look like actually

existing ones

• Unity of design is planned and controlled by an

artist. But more often it reflects the skill of the
designer in creating a unified pattern from varied
elements.
• Yes, unity in art can exist with either representational imagery or abstract forms. Unity, the principle of
design that provides an artwork with a sense of cohesion and harmony, is achievable regardless of the style
or subject matter of the piece.
• In Representational Imagery
• In representational art, which depicts recognizable subjects from the real world (such as landscapes, people,
or objects), unity is often achieved through:
• Conceptual Unity: A shared theme or narrative that ties all the depicted elements together.
• Consistent Style: The use of a uniform artistic style, such as a consistent brushstroke or level of detail, across
the entire work.
• Compositional Techniques: The use of perspective, balanced placement of elements, or a consistent light
source (chiaroscuro) to create a sense of integration.
• In Abstract Forms
• In abstract art, which may be derived from real-world objects but distorts or simplifies them, or non-
representational art, which has no reference to the visible world, unity is achieved through:
• Repetition of Elements: Repeated use of similar shapes, lines, colors, or textures throughout the
composition.
• Color Harmony: Limiting the color palette or using a specific color scheme to create a unified visual
experience.
• Formal Unity: The cohesive arrangement of formal elements like form, line, and shape to create a unified
whole, as seen in the grid-like paintings of Piet Mondrian or the color arrangements of Wassily Kandinsky.
• Ultimately, the goal of unity is to make the artwork feel complete, ensuring no single part feels isolated, and
this can be accomplished through a variety of techniques in both representational and abstract styles.
UNITY

• is an important principle of design that

gives the artwork a sense of cohesion or
coherence.

• It is the wholeness or completeness of a

picture.

• Unity and harmony in art are used by artists to

tie a composition together and help the
composition make sense as a whole piece
of art.
UNITY
• It is achieved by the use of balance, repetition,
and/or design harmony.

• Two objects like a living room and a dining

room can be unified by giving these similar
features like a shared hardwood floor design.

• Unity helps the objects like furniture look like

they belong together.
UNITY
• Look at this wonderful segment of the Bayeux
Tapestry.

• This is considered a textile, or a work made up

of cloth and/or fibers.

• It is an embroidery.
Beveux Tapestry
• It was constructed from eight separate pieces
of linen which were joined to make up its
length.

• It is approximately 70 meters long and half a

meter wide.
UNITY
• This image illustrates a high degree of unity.

• Looking at the elements in this design, we

immediately see that they are all somewhat
similar.

• Unity is achieved through the repetition of the

oval shapes of the cans.

• Linear elements such as diagonal shadows

and paint sticks are also repeated.

• The subtle grays of the metal cans unify a

composition accented by a few bright colors.
UNITY
• This landscape photograph consists of varied
shapes with no exact repetitions.

• yet all the shapes have a similar irregular

jigsaw puzzle quality.

• The harmonious unity of the shapes is

reinforced by a similarity of color throughout
this monochromatic picture.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Units can be achieved by:
Proximity
• Proximity is grouping by nearness.
• The closer the elements are together, the
more likely it is that they are seen as a
group.

Repetition
• Repetition is grouping by similarity.
• If elements are similar, they are perceived as
related, and thus, grouped together.
• Any element can be repeated – line, shape, color,
texture, or value.
• Repeating other features can also create unity
such as using the same angle or size.
• Repetition is one of the simplest and most
effective ways to unify a design.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Units can be achieved by:

Alignment
Alignment is another way to accomplish unity
throughout a composition. Though simple, it is not
always easy to accomplish. Alignment is the lining
up of the edges of an object, and this allows the
eye to group these elements together.

Continuation
Continuation is grouping by connection. It is when
something (a line, a curve, an edge) connects one
element to another. A viewer’s eye will follow this
continuation or connection smoothly, and will group
elements because of it. Continuation doesn't have to
be an actual connection; implied links are also an
example.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Directional Movement

-is a visual flow through the

composition. It can be the suggestion of motion
in a design as you move from object to object
by way of placement and position.
Directional movement can be created with a
value pattern. It is with the placement of dark
and light areas that you
can move your attention through the format.

Rhythm

-is a movement in which some elements recurs

regularly. Like a dance it will have a flow of
objects that will seem to be like the beat of
music.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
VARIETY

• If unity is what holds an image together,

variety is what makes it worth looking at.

• Creating variations of different elements is one

such way.

•Line: varying weight, angle, or length

•Shape: changing up the kind of shape (i.e.

amorphous or geometric) as well as the size,
color, orientation, texture, etc.

•Color: using diversity in the hue, value, or

saturation

•Value: varying the lightness or darkness

•Texture: is it rough or is it smooth?
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN VARIETY

• adds interest by using juxtaposition and

contrasting elements within the
composition.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Unity Variety
separate parts working together in a composition. adds interest by using juxtaposition and
contrasting elements within the composition
, unity creates a sense of harmony and wholeness When an artist places different visual elements
by using similar elements and placing them in a next to one another, he/she is using variety:
way that creates a feeling of “oneness.” Straight lines next to curvy lines. Organic shapes
among geometric shapes. Bright colors next to
dull colors.
GESTALT THEORY
• Theory of visual perception

• It describes how viewers group together different objects into groups or a single coherent
whole when the separate elements are arranged together in a particular way.

• Term Gestalt means 'unified whole’.

Laws of human perception

Gestalt Principles are laws of human perception that describe how we group similar elements,
recognize patterns, and simplify complex images when perceiving objects. These principles
explain how the human eye perceives visual elements and how we organize them into
meaningful wholes.
Gestalt law

• Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle

that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.

• In other words, the whole (a picture, a car)

carried a different and altogether greater
meaning than its components
(paint, canvas; or tire, paint, metal,
respectively).
Gestalt principles

• The Gestalt principles are a set of theories

about human perception that describe how
our brains make sense of visual information.

• These principles are the common unconscious

shortcuts our brains use to make meaning out
of our environments.

•Figure-ground
•Similarity
•Continuity
•Closure
•Proximity
•Symmetry
•Common fate
Gestalt principles

[Link]-Ground: People segment visuals into two

components: figure and ground. The figure is the object or
person that is the focus, and the ground is the background.
Gestalt principles
.
Gestalt principles

2. Similarity: We group similar objects.

The principle of similarity states that things that share

visual characteristics such as shape, size, color,
texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging
together.
Gestalt principles

3. Continuity: We prefer to see continuous lines and

patterns.

This Gestalt law states that learners "tend to continue

shapes beyond their ending points".

Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move

through one object and continue to another object.

The example below illustrates that learners are more apt to

follow the direction of an established pattern rather than
deviate from it.

We perceive the figure as two crossed lines instead of 4

lines meeting at the center.
Gestalt principles

Continuity: We prefer to see continuous lines and patterns.

Gestalt principles

4. Closure: We prefer complete shapes, so we

automatically fill the gaps between elements to perceive a
complete image.

Closure is the brain completing what is suggested or

implied.

It takes the information available and completes it, though

not all of the information is presented.
Gestalt law

• The Gestalt law of closure states that the

human mind seeks to create coherence by
filling in gaps in images that lack
completeness.

• This principle is based on the idea that our

brains try to make sense of incomplete stimuli
by perceiving a complete object or pattern

• An example of the Gestalt law of closure can

be seen in the NBC Television logo, which is a
peacock, but there is not one single line that
depicts a peacock's image. Instead, the
viewer's mind fills in the gaps to create the
perception of a complete peacock
Gestalt law

• Another example is the logo for the World

Wildlife Fund, which demonstrates how lines
do not need to be present for the viewer to
perceive the image.

• The viewer's mind fills in the gaps to create the

perception of a panda
Gestalt law

• Gestalt theorists followed the basic principle

that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.

• In other words, the whole (a picture, a car)

carried a different and altogether greater
meaning than its components
(paint, canvas; or tire, paint, metal,
respectively).
Gestalt principles

5. Proximity: Elements that are placed closer together are

perceived as being more related than those spaced
further apart.
Gestalt principles

6. Symmetry and order : Objects that are balanced and

symmetrical are seen as complete or whole

Humans tend to see visual elements as grouped when they

are arranged symmetrically.

The natural world is filled with symmetry (or near symmetry),

and our brains tend to favor symmetrical forms.

Grid systems that evenly divide the space help designers

implement symmetry and order in user interfaces.
7. Common Fate:

This principle takes a slightly different approach to how we

categorize elements. Common Fate only applies to
moving elements. Common fate principle states that the
human eye tends to perceive objects that coordinate
movement similarly to be related.

An example of common fate would be coordinated movements

of a school of fish or an army of ants.
HARMONY
• A way of combining similar elements
in artwork to accent their similarities
(achieved through the use
of repetitions and subtle gradual
changes).

• is the visually pleasing and satisfying e

ffect of combining similar, related
elements.

• For instance: adjacent colors on the

color wheel, similar shapes, etc.

• Harmony in architecture is achieved when all component • It produces an impression of unity

s of a design such as form, color, texture, and scale through the selection and
work together to create a unified aesthetic. arrangement of consistent object
ideas.
• This principle is essential because it fosters a sense of
order and coherence, making spaces more inviting and • if there is harmony, there is order and
memorable. every orderly arrangement is
• A harmonious design can evoke feelings of comfort and harmonious.
tranquility, enhancing the overall experience of the space.
HARMONY

Ramappa Temple
HARMONY
Aspects of Harmony

• harmony of lines and

shapes

• harmony of size

• harmony of color

• harmony of texture

• harmony of idea
HARMONY
HARMONY
 HARMONY
In the painting below the harmonious, repeating rectangles are
relieved by the contrasting round forms of the pots and flowers. The
overall warm color harmony is given relief by the cool green shutters.
• Harmony is achieved through the sensitive
balance of variety and unity.

• Color harmony may be achieved using

complementary or analogous colors.

• Harmony in design is the similarity of

components or objects looking like they
belong together.

• Harmony is when some or many of the

components (usually three or four objects
depending on the size of the project or room)
such as furniture, and drapes in a room share
a common trait or two.

• A common trait could be: color(s), shape(s),

texture, pattern(s), material, theme, style, size,
or functionality.
John Lovett, 2006.
HARMONY
HARMONY
• For example, a drapery could share
the same color that is on a pillow or
wallpaper. This is called color
coordination in wall paper design.

• Harmony and unity generally make

designs more visually appealing,
organized and interesting.

• It is a technical and artificial process

for attempting to produce interior
design beauty.

• Design harmony or unity sometimes

produces balance in: design, furniture
and accessory selection, and
organization of furniture placement in
most cases
HARMONY
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN - BALANCE
Short Answer:
1. Write a short note on Radial Balance
2. Explain crystallographic balance.
3. Write a short note on symmetry in architecture
4. Write a short note on asymmetrical balance in architecture
5. What is the tool an architect has in his hand to make the form of his building a good one?

Short Essays:
1. Discuss Contrast and Balance as two major principles of design
2. 2. Explain the difference between Radial and crystallographic balance with neat sketches
3. Explain the difference between symmetrical balance and asymmetrical balance in architecture with
neat sketches

Long Essays:
1. What do you understand by " Unity in variety"? Which one among balance continuity and emphasis
according to you can play the strongest role in uniting the elements of an organization in a usual
field?
2. Explain what you mean by the interaction of elements in architecture.
BALANCE
• The distribution of apparent visual weights
through a composition.

• We subconsciously Assign visual weight to parts of a work,

and we tend to want the parts to be distributed through
the work in such a way that they seem to balance each
other.
BALANCE
BALANCE

• Balance is the visual weight of elements

in a composition.

• Balance is used to add stability, add

structure, create emphasis and to create
dynamics.

• In design, one should attempt to place

visual elements in an aesthetically
pleasing arrangement, or particular
arrangement to fulfill a purpose or
achieve a particular look and feel.
BALANCE
Symmetrical Balance

• Distribution of equal forces around a central

point or axis.

• Formal balance

• Composition identical on both sides

• Dividing line can be horizontal, vertical or

diagonal
BALANCE
Symmetrical Balance
• Symmetrical balance is mirror image balance.

• If you drew a line down the center of the

page, all the visual elements on one side of
the screen are mirrored on the other side.

• They don’t have to be identical visual

elements but can be similar in number, colour,
shape and scale.

• When visual elements are equal in weight,

they are said to be in balance.

• Symmetrical balance can be used when one

wishes to achieve a formal design, a sense of
structure, a sense of organization and stability.
BALANCE
Symmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Symmetrical Balance and Architecture

• Symmetry in architecture is a fundamental

design principle that contributes to the
harmony and balance of a structure.

• Bilateral symmetry involves the balanced

arrangement of similar elements on opposite
sides of an axis, creating a mirrored effect.

• An example of this is the Taj Mahal in Agra.

BALANCE
Symmetrical Balance and Architecture

• On the other hand, radial symmetry refers to

the balanced arrangement of similar elements
around a central point.

• This type of symmetry is less common in

architecture but can be found in structures
such as the Spiral Minaret in Samarra, Iraq.

• Symmetry in architecture is not only about the

solid components of a building but also
encompasses the void, or the architectural
space, which plays a crucial role in shaping
the overall experience of symmetry within a
structure
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance

• Asymmetrical balance is used to describe a

kind of balance that is not identical on both
sides of a central line i.e. not relying on
symmetry, opposite of symmetrical balance.

• Asymmetrical balance occurs when several

smaller visual elements are balanced by a
large visual element on the other side or
smaller visual elements are placed further
away from the center of the screen than
larger visual elements.

• Asymmetrical balance can be used to

achieve a more casual or less planned look
and feel.

• Stability without being formal

• Not alike on both sides
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance

• An asymmetrical composition can create a

sense of tension as if the page or screen may
tip or things might slide off the side.

• Asymmetrical balance is more dynamic than

symmetrical balance and normally keeps the
audience’s attention focused on the visual
message.

Thomas Gainsborough, [Link] Mrs. Andrews, [Link] on canvas

BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance and Architecture
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance and Architecture

• The Walt Disney Concert Hall, designed by

architect Frank Gehry, is an excellent example
of asymmetric architecture

• Vincent van Gogh’s The Starry Night painting is

another example of asymmetrical balance

• In architecture, asymmetrical balance can

evoke feelings of movement and seem more
modern than symmetrical designs
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Asymmetrical Balance
BALANCE
Radial Balance

• The third type of balance is radial balance

where all elements radiate out from a center
point in a circular fashion.

• It is very easy to maintain a focal point in radial

balance since all the elements lead your eye
towards the center.

• Success in using good balance can help

achieve a strong visual effect and good-
quality designs.
BALANCE Radial Balance

North rose window notre dame

cathedral
BALANCE
Radial Balance

• Distribution of equal forces around a central

point or axis.

• If an imaginary vertical axis were drawn

through the center of the piece, the two
halves of the central figure and the geometric
animal extending

Tibetan thangka, The Wheel of

Life,20th century, Tempera
BALANCE Radial Balance
BALANCE
• Crystallographic balance, also known as
mosaic balance, is a type of balance in art
and design where equal weight is given to a
large number of elements, creating a
balanced chaos in which several different
elements combine into a unified whole.

• It is achieved by creating a grid pattern and

repeating elements of equal weight, without a
distinct focal point.

• Crystallographic balance is often used in

landscape photography, pattern design,
website backgrounds, and architectural
photography.

• It can create a sense of harmony despite

looking busy and disordered and is ideal for
unconventional or more abstract designs.
BALANCE
• The result isn’t a perfectly symmetrical pattern,
but a type of balanced chaos in which several
different elements combine into a unified
whole.

• Because the eye can’t locate a single focal

point on a crystallographic image, the viewer
is tricked into accepting the image as a
balanced whole, even though there might be
a multitude of differing and random elements.
BALANCE
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN - RHYTHM
Short answers:
1. What do you mean by rhythm in architecture?
2. What do you mean by pattern in architecture?
3. What do you mean by sequence in architecture?
4. What are the different shapes architects utilize? is it a must that it should be a regular geometrical
shape?
5. Write a short note on Gradation

Short Essays:
1. How an architect can utilize visual movement in his buildings?
2. How an architect can utilize movement in his architecture?
3. Write a short essay about the difference between pattern and sequence in architecture.
4. Differentiate progressive rhythm and rhythm

Long Essays:
1. Explain in detail how architects use rhythm in buildings.
2. Define repetition, pattern, and sequence. What happens in the absence of these attributes? What
happens in the excessive presence of these attributes?
RHYTHM

• A continuance, a flow, or a feeling of

movement achieved by the repetition of
regulated visual information.

• A principle of design that indicates

movement, created by the careful
placement of repeated elements in a work of
art to cause a visual tempo or beat.
RHYTHM
RHYTHM

Formal

• is the repetition of a motif in a regular

arrangement.

Informal/Free Rhythm

• is the repetition
of a motif(decorative design) with variation o
n its form and arrangement
 RHYTHM

• Regular rhythm- AB-AB-AB - Picture

alternating stripes of two colors, for instance.

• Alternating rhythm consists of successive

patterns in which the element (s) continue to
appear in a regular distinct order- AB-BA-AB.

• Progressive Rhythm - is the repetition of a

shape that changes in a very regular
manner.

• Flowing rhythm- Flowing rhythms are the most

relaxing, and their gradual crescendos and
decrescendos can be modulated into a final
"cascade" to make a memorable point.

• Random rhythm- Groupings of similar motifs

or elements that repeat with no regularity
create a random rhythm.
PROGRESSIVE RHYTHM
• Progressive rhythm is a type of rhythm characterized by
the arrangement of elements in a sequence, suggesting
a gradual increase or decrease in quality, such as size,
color, or texture.

• This type of rhythm implies a directional momentum and

creates a sense of movement or flow
PROGRESSIVE RHYTHM
• An example of progressive rhythm in art is the sculpture
"Bird in Space" by Constantin Brancusi.

• In this work, the form of a bird is depicted through a

series of simplified, abstract shapes that progressively
become more streamlined and simplified.
TECHNIQUES TO CREATE RHYTHM
• Repetition

• Variation

• Contrast
• Contrast is an important technique used to create
rhythm in art. This involves using elements of
difference within a piece of artwork, such as color,
size, shape, or content. For
example, juxtaposing light and dark colors or
switching between large and small shapes can
create a sense of movement which enables viewers
to appreciate the interplay between components
within the artwork.

• Graduation
RHYTHM

•Rhythm guides our eyes from one point to

another in a work of art

•Rhythm is created when one or more elements

of design are used repeatedly to create a
feeling of organized movement.

•Artists create repetition by using the same

shape, color, size, value, line, or texture over
and over again

•In Katsushika Hokusai's The Great Wave, the

use of repeating colors of different shades and
tints of blue and white curvilinear shapes on the
tips of waves creates rhythm.
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM AND PATTERN
RHYTHM IN ARCHITECTURE

• Rhythm in architecture is defined as “A

unifying movement characterized by a
patterned repetition or alteration of formal
elements or motifs in the same or a modified
form.”

• Hence, rhythm in architecture can be

expressed as a repetition of elements such as
lines, shapes, forms or colours resulting on
organized movement in space and time.

• As a design principle, rhythm can be defined

in architecture as a patterned repetition of
elements in space.

• We place elements and experience the

intervals between them.

cultural center designed by Ar. Zaha Hadid. In this architectural composition, we can say that if
the surface is the music, then the joints between the panels are the rhythm.
RHYTHM IN ARCHITECTURE

• Rhythm in architecture is characterised by

patterns, elements or motifs at irregular or
regular intervals.

• The movement may be of our eyes as we

follow elements in a composition or of our
bodies as we move through a sequence of
spaces.

• Rhythm is the organization of the repetitive

forms, elements and space in architecture.

• When you repeat elements, the intervals

between those repeated elements creates a
sense of rhythm.
RHYTHM IN ARCHITECTURE
• The image shown above is of The Roman Colosseum,
which is a classic example of rhythm in architecture.

• In this building repeating arches capture the rhythm and

repetition in architecture.
•

• Repetition in architecture, i.e. by using similar modules

on façade of building are very common and visually
well defined in the figure given
RHYTHM IN ARCHITECTURE
• The rhythm of Walt Disney Concert Hall exudes a poetic
movement frozen in time…giving the impression that it
was shaped by the music that it houses!

• Frank Gehry typically starts from the inside, working his

way outward

• Santiago Calatrava utilised his knowledge of the human

body and channelized it into a rhythm in architecture –
by vertically twisting the floor plan at every 5th floor level
of the Turning Torso building at Malmo, Sweden.
RHYTHM IN ARCHITECTURE
• The Opera House, Sydney (Australia) is also an example
of the rhythm in architecture, in this building repetitive
form is used to give a rhythm or repetition in
architectural design.
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
• architects utilize various shapes in their designs, and
while regular geometrical shapes like squares,
rectangles, and circles are frequently employed,
irregular shapes are also incorporated.

• Common non-rectangular shapes include ellipses,

trapezoids, and polygons.

• The choice of shape influences the overall appearance,

functionality, and user experience of a structure
Historical use of Geometry of Architecture

•The great pyramid base is a perfect square, each side measuring about 230 meters (755 feet), with an
error of only a few centimeters.

•The pyramid’s sides are inclined at an angle of 51 degrees and 51 minutes, forming an almost perfect
pyramid shape.

•The pyramid’s interior is also geometrically fascinating. Its descending passage is aligned with the
pyramid’s north face and is precisely 26.6 degrees downward, reflecting the angle of the pyramid’s
slope.
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
• The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, is another famous
example of geometry of architecture.

• The use of geometry is evident in the harmony and

balance of the temple design.

• For example:
• The building’s columns, friezes, and pediments are all
based on precise geometric calculations, with the ratio
of the building’s height to its width being a perfect 9:4.

• Geometry is evident In Taj Mahal, from the tiniest details, such

as patterns, to the largest, such as the building’s symmetry.
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
While regular geometric shapes are commonly used in
architecture, the incorporation of irregular shapes allows
architects to create visually interesting and functionally
diverse structures.

Some examples of irregular shapes used in architecture

include:

[Link] Shapes:

• Inspired by nature, these shapes have irregular or

curving forms, creating a sense of movement and
fluidity.

• They are commonly used in modern architecture

and biophilic design, as well as in features like
curved windows and doors.

• Examples of architectural styles that have used

organic shapes include Art Nouveau and Art Deco
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
Some examples of irregular shapes used in architecture
include:

[Link] Structures:

• Trapezoidal buildings create a dynamic and active

atmosphere, making them suitable for sports or
leisure facilities

• They find practical applications in various

architectural designs, especially in the construction
of roofs.

• The shape of a trapezoid allows for efficient water

drainage and provides stability, making it ideal for
creating sloping or gabled roofs
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
Some examples of irregular shapes used in architecture
include:

[Link] Polyhedrons:

• These complex shapes are used in modern

architectural designs to create unique and
innovative structures

• architects could
draw inspiration
from naturally
occurring
irregular
polyhedra, such
as crystal
structures, to
generate unique
and organic
forms for their
creations.
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
[Link] Museum Bilbao:

Designed by Frank Gehry, this museum in Spain features a

unique, curving shape that resembles a ship or a flower.

The building's titanium exterior reflects the surrounding

environment, creating a dynamic and ever-changing
appearance
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
[Link] Dancing House (Prague, Czech Republic)
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
1..Sydney Opera House:

This iconic building in Australia features a series of sail-like

shells that create a distinctive and recognizable silhouette.

Designed by Jørn Utzon, the building's irregular shape was

inspired by the natural forms of the harbor and the
surrounding landscape
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
1..Burj Khalifa:

This skyscraper in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is the tallest

building in the world.

Designed by Adrian Smith, the building's shape is inspired

by the geometry of a desert flower and features a series of
setbacks that create a distinctive and dynamic profile
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
1..Hundertwasserhaus:

This apartment building in Vienna, Austria, was designed

by Friedensreich Hundertwasser and features a colorful
and irregular facade with undulating floors and a rooftop
garden.

The building's design incorporates natural forms and

materials, creating a unique and playful appearance
SHAPES IN ARCHITECTURE
REPETITION
• The use of the same form or element in a building can
be termed repetition.

• Repetition of unit forms usually conveys an immediate

sense of harmony.

• Repetition adds visual interest to design and helps to

identify elements that belong together.

• These elements can be as simple as color, spatial

relationships, shape, texture, Columns, and windows,
pattern, and arrangement of tiles.
REPETITION
REPETITION
• Repetition creates patterns.

• Pattern is created by the repetition of a shape, form, or

texture across a work of art.
PATTERN
• Patterns are repeating visual elements used to create
order and unity within a composition.

• Patterns can be used as an element on their own or as

an accent within another pattern.

• In general usage, a pattern is repeated at regular

intervals throughout an area or surface for decorative
effect.

• There are many types of patterns: stripes, checks, circles,

and dots are just some examples!

• While repetition focuses on a single element being

repeated, pattern refers to multiple elements repeated
throughout a design (e.g. wallpapers and backgrounds)

• increases the visual excitement by supplementing

surface interest.
PATTERN
Tessellation

A tessellation is created when a shape is repeated and

covers a plane without any gaps or overlaps.
SEQUENCE
• Sequence in architectural design refers to the strategic
organization of spaces within a built environment to
create a coherent and engaging user experience

• It involves creating a progression or flow of spaces that

are linked together deliberately to enhance the user's
sensory experience and create an integrated spatial
journey

• This sequential arrangement can include spaces with

contrasting qualities such as secluded/expansive,
bright/shaded, hard/soft, dynamic/static, among
others, to provide a rich sensorial experience
GRADATION
• Gradation is a design principle that refers to a gradual
transition or progression of elements, such as color, size,
or texture, from one end of a composition to another.

• Gradation can be used to create a sense of depth,

movement, or emphasis within a design.

• It can also be used to create a sense of harmony and

balance by gradually transitioning between different
elements in a way that feels natural and pleasing to the
eye.

• For example, a painting that gradually transitions from

dark to light colors can create a sense of depth and
movement, drawing the viewer's eye from one end of
the composition to the other.

• Similarly, a photograph that gradually transitions from a

sharp focus to a blurred background can create a
sense of depth and focus on the subject of the
photograph.
GRADATION
• Gradation can be used in a variety of design contexts,
including graphic design, interior design, and
architecture.

• In graphic design, gradation can be used to create a

sense of movement or emphasis within a layout, while in
interior design, it can be used to create a sense of
depth and visual interest within a space.

• In architecture, gradation can be used to create a sense

of scale and proportion, as well as to guide the viewer's
eye through a space.
GRADATION
• In the piece, he gradually transitions from one color to
another and varies the size of his shapes in a way that
creates movement and depth.

• This allows viewers to take in the entire painting at once,

while simultaneously experiencing its different
components up close.

• The use of gradual transitions creates an aesthetically

pleasing visual experience for onlookers.

• Additionally, graduation helps create depth and

perspective in artwork.

• By transitioning from one element to another gradually,

the viewer is able to take in the entire piece without
abrupt changes that may feel jarring or disorienting.
REPETITION, PATTERN, RHYTHM

Repetition refers to one object or shape

repeated;

pattern is a combination of elements or

shapes repeated in a recurring and regular
arrangement

rhythm--is a combination of elements

repeated but with variations.
RHYTHM AND MOVEMENT
• The words Rhythm and Movement are often associated
with music, dance and sports

• Movement is the way a viewer's eye is directed to move

through a composition, often to areas of emphasis

•
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN - EMPHASIS AND FOCAL POINT
Short Answer:
1. Explain Emphasis and Focal point
2. What is datum in architecture?
3. Explain the principle of hierarchy with examples
4. What is meant be contrast. explain with examples.
5. Short note on Contrast and juxtaposition
6. Short note on the presence of absence in architecture
7. What is the role of axis in architecture?
8. What are ordering principles used in architecture?
9. Explain complexity and contradiction.

Short Essays:
1. Explain how Emphasis could be created in Architecture taking the works of master architects as
examples.
2. What is the role of axis in architecture. Explain through sketches how this ordering principle is used in
buildings
3. What is the relation between axis, movement and pause in architecture ?

Long Essays:
1. What is emphasis and focal point? Explain with neat sketches how it could be created in
Architecture taking the works of master architects.
2. Describe the importance of presence and absence in architecture. Interpret through illustrations
EMPHASIS
• Special attention/importance given to one part of a
work of art (for example, a dark shape in a light
composition).

• Emphasis can be achieved through placement,

contrast, colour, size, repetition.

• Emphasis is used to make certain parts of an artwork

stand out

• It creates the center of interest or focal point.

• It is a place in which an artist draws your eye first.

EMPHASIS
• Emphasis done by

a) By contrast

b) By Massing

c) By ornamentation

d) By color

e) By positioning
EMPHASIS
• Lines create direction on a page by pointing to specific
elements that help the viewer’s eyes know where to go.

• Shapes can also draw attention. Using a group of similar

shapes and breaking the group with a different shape
will create tension and draw the eyes.

• Color can create an emphasis in any design. Buttons on

a website tend to contrast with the background to
create a sense of urgency and attention.

• Texture can be seen in materials to enhance tactile

features. For instance, a business card can have an
emboss or relief on a logo to emphasize it.

• Space is also an option to emphasize certain elements

in your design. Enough white space around an object
can prioritize the focus on a single element.
FOCAL POINT
• The focal point is one area that has been emphasized to
a greater extent than others in a work.

• Emphasis is the principle by which an artist draws

attention to particular content.

• A focal point is a specific place of visual emphasis in a

work of art or design.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper uses

linear perspective as a tool for creating a
focal point in the center of the work
EMPHASIS

Emphasis by size Emphasis by shape

Emphasis by placement Emphasis by isolation

DATUM
• Datum refers to a reference line, plane, or point used in
architectural design as a basis for measurement and
alignment.

• It serves as a common reference point for design

elements and help to ensure consistency and
coherence in design.
DATUM
• A datum can organise element in the following way:
DATUM
DATUM
PRINCIPELS OF HIRERACHY
• Hierarchy is the thoughtful arrangement of elements to
suggest an order of importance.

• IT influences the order in which the human eye

perceives each view.

• In design hierarchy is used to

• Add structure
• Create a visual organization
• Create direction
• Add emphasis
• Help viewers to navigate and digest information
easily.

• Examples of hierarchy in design include contrasting

colors, scaling, spacing adjustments, alignment of
visuals, and incorporation of shapes and new forms
PRINCIPELS OF HIRERACHY
PRINCIPELS OF HIRERACHY
PRINCIPELS OF HIRERACHY
CONTRAST
• The juxtaposition of different elements of design(for
example: rough and smooth textures, dark and light
values) to highlight their differences and/or create visual
interest or a focal point.

• In design we use contrast to generate impact, highlight

importance, create exciting graphics, and create visual
interest and dynamics.
CONTRAST
PRESENCE AND ABSENCE
• The presence of absence in architecture refers to a
design concept where architects intentionally eliminate
or remove certain elements from a structure to create a
specific effect or convey a particular message.

• This approach involves using subtraction and abstraction

to express the essence of architecture beyond just the
physical presence of materials or forms.

• Architects may eliminate parts of the original design,

such as columns, walls, or sections of a building, to
achieve various effects that could not be achieved
solely by adding elements.

• By removing certain components, architects can create

a sense of openness, spaciousness, or lightness within a
structure.

• This intentional absence can evoke emotions,

emphasize specific architectural features, or challenge
traditional design conventions
CONTRAST
ORDERING PRINCIPLE
• used to break down the components of a building to
study the relationships between these parts.

• The easiest way to find ordering principles is to look at a

building, a floor plan, or a map and see what catches
your eye; then ask yourself: What part of the building is
most noticeable?

• What did the architect do to make it stand out

ORDERING PRINCIPLE
1. Axis:
• An axis is a central line that helps to organize a
design.
• Often there is an axis at the center of a building or
over a doorway.
• When architects use an axis or focal point in their
design it acts like a straight arrow on a sign,
pointing you in the right direction

2. Symmetry:
• Symmetry refers to the geometry of a building
and occurs if the building is the same on either
side of an axis.
• There are many types of symmetry but the
three that are most commonly used in
architecture are lateral (the two sides are mirror
images of each other), and can be vertical (up
and down axis) or horizontal (across axis).
ORDERING PRINCIPLE
3. Hierarchy:
• A hierarchy is a system that organizes items based
on how important they are, with the most important
things being the most obvious.
• In architecture, a hierarchy is most often established
through the use of shape, size, color, or location.
• A design element will stand out if it is noticeably
different from the rest of the design.

4. Rhythm/Repetition:
• Rhythm is established through the use of repeated
forms.
• In architecture, repetition refers to a pattern in which
the same shape, size, or color is used over and over
again throughout the design.
• If that shape then changes but is still recognizable it
demonstrates rhythm
ORDERING PRINCIPLE
5. Transformation:
• A form that repeats can also be said to show
transformation if it looks a little different each time.
• Sometimes shapes transform by getting bigger or
smaller but they might also rotate, stretch, or morph
into a different shape.

6. Datum:
• A datum is a form that ties together or anchors all
other elements of the design.
• It can be a line, like a road with houses arranged
along its length, a flat plane, or even a 3D space.
ORDERING PRINCIPLE
The National Mall in Washington DC

• an axis that runs from the Capitol Building to the Lincoln

Memorial and divides the city into four distinct
quadrants.

• It is also a datum along which many of the Smithsonian’s

museums are arranged.

• The Mall itself is a track of lawns and paths arranged

within a symmetrical rectangle.

• The Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and

the Capitol stand out because of their size, distinctive
shapes, and the clear line that connects them.

• These factors demonstrate the way that city planners

established a hierarchy on the Mall.
ORDERING PRINCIPLE
 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN – SCALE AND PROPORTION
Short Answer:
1. Short note on the principles-scale and proportion in architecture
2. short note on golden ratio and fibonacci series
3. Short note on proxemics
4. Explain fight or flight distance
5. Short note on the proportioning system devised by Ar. Le corbusier
6. Explain Ergonomics
7. Write note on ‘proportion’ in architecture
8. Describe ‘Golden Section’ and mention how it is related to architecture.
9. Explain Commensurate Proportions

10. Short Essays:

11. Explain the importance of proportion in architecture referencing the works of any master architects as examples.
12. Explain the importance of proportion in architecture with help of historical works as examples.
13. Explain commensurate and incommensurate proportions
14. Significance of Golden ratio and how is it related to modular. Explain with neat illustrations
15. Differentiate between size scale and proportions

16. Long Essays:

17. Explain human scale and monumental scale with suitable examples.
18. Describe using an example about the importance of ergonomics ?
The notion of scale
Visual scale

• A thing appears smaller or larger in relation to the size of

other things in its environment.

• We perceive the size of a building in comparison to the

other structures near it (or human beings near it) or we
perceive the size of elements (such as doors or windows
in a building) in relation to the other parts or to the
whole of a composition.

• We also understand the true sizes of the buildings when

we compare them to standard elements such as
residential window units or modular materials such as
bricks.
SCALE AND PROPORTION
• Scale and proportion play very important roles in architecture.

• Proportion refers to the proper and harmonious relation of one part to another or the whole, while
scale refers to the size of something compared to a reference standard or the size of something else
(like a human being).
SCALE AND PROPORTION
• Scale refers to the size of an object in relationship to
another object.

• Most of the case sizes are compared to the human

scale.
SCALE
Visual scale

• A thing appears smaller or larger in relation to the size of

other things in its environment.

• We perceive the size of a building in comparison to the

other structures near it (or human beings near it) or we
perceive the size of elements (such as doors or windows
in a building) in relation to the other parts or to the
whole of a composition.

• We also understand the true sizes of the buildings when

we compare them to standard elements such as
residential window units or modular materials such as
bricks.
SCALE
SCALE
Human scale

• Human scale refers to the size of a form when compared

with our own human size.

• Human dimensions and scale have a determinative

effect both in our perception and also in our creation of
buildings and spaces.

• Human scale in architecture is based on the dimensions

and proportions of the human body.

• Architecture is the largest of the visual arts. In terms of

perception, one of the challenges for the user is to
determine just how big a building is.

• For doing this we use our own size as the reference. We

can understand the dimensions of a building better,
when we compare that to our human dimensions.

• How big a building is relative to the size of the average

human being is said to be its scale.
SCALE
Human scale
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
• Art objects created on a monumental scale
appear larger than they would be in normal life

• Art objects created on a human scale correspond

to the size of things as they exist

• Small-scale objects appear smaller than our usual

experience of them in the real world
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
• In architecture, scale and proportion are crucial in
creating aesthetically pleasing and functional
structures.

• Scale refers to the relationship between the size of

objects within a design or artwork, often compared to
human scale.

• It sets the normal size of the work, providing a focal point

or emphasis.

• Proportion, on the other hand, deals with the relative

size of components within an object or building.

• It ensures harmony between different parts, like the ratio

of a door's height to a room's height or a window's width
to a wall's height
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
• Architects use these principles to arrange space, form,
and materials effectively.

• Proportion involves maintaining relative sizes of building

components, like doors to rooms or windows to walls, for
aesthetic appeal.

• The Golden Ratio is often employed for well-

proportioned designs.

• Scale, on the other hand, considers how a building fits

into its surroundings; too small or too large structures can
disrupt harmony
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
• Historical examples like the Parthenon in Athens
showcase the significance of proportion and scale in
architecture.

• The columns are perfectly proportioned, and the

dimensions of the building are in harmony with each
other, creating an aesthetically pleasing structure.

• Architects like Le Corbusier emphasized proportion and

scale in their works, incorporating modular dimensions
based on the golden ratio and human-scale elements
for functional and visually appealing designs
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
• Buildings that ignore these principles can be
unattractive and dysfunctional.

• An example of this is the Brutalist architecture of the

1960s, which often featured large, imposing buildings
with no regard for the surrounding environment’s scale.

• These structures were often criticized for their harsh and

unappealing appearance.

• It is necessary to consider the scale of a building about

its surroundings to ensure that it fits appropriately into its
context.

• A building that is too small in comparison to its

surroundings will look out of place, while a building that
is too large will dominate its surroundings and create a
sense of imbalance.
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
• Proportion and scale also affect the functionality of a
building.

• A building that is too small for its purpose will be

cramped and uncomfortable, while a building that is
too large will waste space and be difficult to maintain.

• Therefore, an architect must carefully consider the size

of a building, both in terms of its intended use and the
surrounding environment, to create a structure that is
both functional and aesthetically pleasing.
SCALE AND PROPORTION IN ARCHITECTURE
Villa Savoye

• Completed in 1931, this house is considered one of Le

Corbusier’s masterpieces.

• Its design incorporates many of his ideas about

proportion and scale, including the use of modular
dimensions based on the golden ratio and the
incorporation of human-scale elements such as ramps
and stairs.
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
SCALE AND PROPORTION
• Purpose of Scale in Design

• To fit the sizes of objects to the requirements of

human beings.

• To express certain characteristics or qualities

SCALE AND PROPORTION
Factors influencing Scales

• Human figure

• Function

• Convenience and comfort

• Desired character or expression

• Economics

• Size of materials

• Location and environment

• Beauty

• Laws of nature
SCALE AND PROPORTION
Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, Mistos (Match
Cover) Mistos (Match Cover

• Uses monumental scale to poke fun while expressing

admiration for the little things of everyday life

• Oldenburg transforms the essence of everyday things as

he magnifies their sculptural form

• Oldenburg believes that the items of mass culture, no

matter how insignificant they might seem, express a
truth about modern life
SCALE AND PROPORTION
Scale carries psychological connotations
• When we pass through a doorway of the usual,
expected size, there is not much to note in terms of
experience.

• But if a doorway is the size of one in the Malacañan

Palaceor the entrance doors to Manila Cathedral, we
notice it because it is so much larger than usual.

• In relation to human size and to usual size of doorways,

we feel diminished by the magnitude of implications.

• The scale of these doors, therefore, indicates that

something important is taking place, some important
event, something larger than ourselves; something
solemn, formal, ritualistic, awesome, or some way
unusual.

• The very size of such a doorway produces a feeling of

grandeur and calls our attention to the action of
passage through it, because our usual relation with
doors has been altered.
SCALE AND PROPORTION
• Scale= Size

• Proportion = relative size, the size of an object as

measured in comparison to another object or against
some mental norm or standard.

• Artists and designers make conscious choices about the

scale of their work when they consider the message
they want to put across

• A small-scale work implies intimacy

• Large-scale works can be experienced by groups of
viewers and usually communicate big ideas
directed at a large audience

• Practical considerations can affect an artist’s decision

about scale.
PROPORTION
• Proportion is the relation between elements and
a whole.

• In architecture the whole is not just a building but the set

and setting of the site.

• The things that make a building and its site "well shaped
"include the orientation of the site and the buildings on it
to the features of the grounds on which it is situated.

• Light, shade, wind, elevation, and choice of materials,

all should relate to a standard and say what is it that
makes it what it is, and what is it that makes it not
something else.

• Good proportion adds harmony, symmetry, or balance

among the parts of a design.
PROPORTION
PROPORTION
Material Proportions
• All building materials in architecture have distinct
properties of elasticity, hardness, and durability.

• And they all have an ultimate strength beyond which

they cannot extend themselves without fracturing,
breaking, or collapsing.

• Since the stresses in a material resulting from the force of

gravity increase with size, all materials also have rational
dimensions beyond which they cannot go.

• For example, a stone slab that is four inches thick and

eight feet long can be reasonably expected to support
itself as a bridge between two supports.

• But if its size were to increase fourfold, to sixteen inches

thick and thirty-two feet long, it would probably
collapse under its weight.
PROPORTION
Structural Proportions
• In the construction of architecture, structural elements
are called upon to span spaces and transmit their loads
through vertical supports to the foundation system of a
building.

• The size and proportion of these elements are directly

related to the structural tasks they perform and can
therefore be visual indicators of the size and scale of the
spaces they help enclose.

• Beams, for example, transmit their loads horizontally

across space to their vertical supports.

• If the span or load of a beam were doubled, its bending

stresses would likewise double, possibly causing it to
collapse.

• But if its depth were doubled, its strength would increase

fourfold.
PROPORTION
Manufactured Proportions
• Many architectural elements are sized and
proportioned not only according to their structural
properties and function but also by the process through
which they are manufactured.

• Because these elements are mass-produced in

factories, they have standard sizes and proportions
imposed on them by the individual manufacturers or by
industry standards.

• Concrete block and common brick, for example, are

produced as modular building units.
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Theories of Proportion:

• Golden Section

• Classical Orders

• Modulor

• Ken

• Anthropometry

• Scale
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Golden Section

• The Greeks recognized the dominating role the

Golden Section played in the proportions of the
human body.

• Believing that both humanity and the shrines

housing their deities should belong to a higher
universal order, they utilized these same proportions
in their temple structures.

• Renaissance architects also explored the Golden

Section in their work.

• In more recent times, Le Corbusier based his

Modulor system on the Golden Section.

• Its use in architecture endures even today.

PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Golden Section

• According to this law, two quantities are said to be in

the golden section (φ) if the ratio of the sum of the
quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of
the larger quantity to the smaller one.

• a ratio of approx. 0.618 to 1.000.

PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Golden Section Rectangle

• A rectangle whose sides are proportioned according to

the Golden Section is called a Golden Rectangle.

• Definition: A Golden Rectangle is one where the ratio of

the longer side (a) to the shorter side (b) is exactly the
Golden Ratio

• This operation can be repeated indefinitely to produce a

gradation of squares and golden rectangles.

• In this system, each part remains similar to all of the other

parts, as well as to the whole.
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Fibonacci numbers

• In mathematics, the successive proportions of a

series of numbers, which are called Fibonacci
numbers, give the Golden Ratio.

• In these series, a number is the sum of the two

consecutive numbers before itself.

• If a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate

predecessor in the sequence, the quotient
approximates φ (like: 13/8= φ).

• The larger the numbers get, the closer it

approximates φ.

• Fibonacci numbers are in the following integer

sequence:
PROPORTIONING SYSTEMS
Nature and golden section

• Nature (the leaves, the trees, the animals, and human

beings) develops and grows according to Golden
Section (or Fibonacci series).
Architecture and Golden Section
• Phi (Φ), the Golden Section, has been used by
mankind for centuries in architecture.

• Its use started as early as with the Egyptians in the

design of the pyramids.

• When the basic phi relationships are used to create a

right triangle, it forms the dimensions of the great
pyramids of Egypt, with the geometry shown below
creating an angle of 51.83 degrees, the cosine of
which is phi, or 1.618.

• The Greeks used golden section extensively for

beauty and balance in the design of the Parthenon
and other architectural works
Architecture and Golden Section
• Golden section was used it in the design of
Notre Dame in Paris, which was built in the 1163
and 1250.

• In India, it was used in the construction of the

Taj Mahal, which was completed in 1648.
VITRUVIAN MAN
• The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci is one of the
most well-known ideal proportions of the male
body.

• created by Leonardo da Vinci around the year

1487.

• It has been one of the most influential works created

in the Renaissance.

• The Vitruvian Man has symbolism and historical

context.

• The circle was seen to represent the cosmic and the

divine the square, was recognized as the
earthly and the secular.
Le Modulor
• The famous architect Le Corbusier also worked with
human proportions and Golden Section.

• He has developed a theory of proportion and

dimensioning system, named Modulor that is based on
Golden Section and human proportions.

• He had formed the proportions of the human body

according to the Fibonacci series and accepted the
average human height as 183 cm (He found out that
height also according to the Fibonacci Series).
Le Modulor
• According to that, he had developed two series of
dimensions, first according to the full height of the man,
which is 183 cm (red series) and the second according
to the height when he lifted his arm, which is 226 cm
(blue series).

• He developed this system for the serial production of

standard furniture and for determining the lengths,
heights and widths of inner spaces.

• He believed that Le Modulor satisfied both the demands

of beauty (because it is derived from Golden
section/Fibonacci series) and also functional demands.

• Red series: 4-6-10-16-27-43-70-113-183 cm.

• Blue series: 13-20-33-53-86-140-226 cm.

Le Modulor
• These proportional dimensions were used for detecting
the following dimensions:

• 27 cm. - the height of the armchair while sitting

• 43 cm - the height of the chair

• 70 cm - the height of the table

• 86 cm - the height of the countertop

• 113 cm - the height of the bar

• 140 cm - the height of the armchair horizontal arm

• 183 cm - human height

• 226 cm - human height with arm lifted up

Le Modulor
• Le Corbusier used his Modulor dimensions in the design
of Unite d‘Habitation Residential Block in Marseilles,
France.

• He used 15 measures of Modulor to bring human scale

to the huge building, which is 140 m‘s long, 24 m‘s wide
and 70 m‘s high.
ANTHROPOMETRY
• Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size
and proportions of the human body.
ANTHROPOMETRY
• The dimensions and proportions of the human body
affect the proportion of things we handle, the height
and distance of things we try to reach, and the
dimensions of the furnishings we use for sitting, working,
eating, and sleeping.

• There is a difference between our structural dimensions

and those dimensional requirements that result from
how we reach for something on a shelf, sit down at a
table, walk down a set of stairs, or interact with other
people.

• These are functional dimensions and will vary according

to the nature of the activity engaged in and the social
situation.

• A special field that has developed from a concern with

human factors is ergonomics.
ERGONOMICS
• Ergonomics is the science of designing the
job, equipment, and workplace to fit the worker.

• Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent

repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time
and can lead to long-term disability.

• Ergonomics is a multi-disciplinary engineering science

that applies principles based on the physical and
psychological capabilities of people to design or
modifies jobs, equipment, products, and workplaces to
keep the health and productivity.
•
ERGONOMICS
• Ergonomics uses scientific and evidence-based
knowledge about people - their physical and
psychological capabilities and limitations - to design
workplaces and work activities so that individuals work
better, are less likely to injure themselves or make errors.

• Ideally, ergonomics principles need to be included in

the design of a new workplace or a production process.

• Ergonomics looks at what kind of work you do, what

tools you use and your whole job environment

•
ERGONOMICS
The goals of ergonomics are:

• to decrease the risk of injuries and illnesses (especially

those related to the musculoskeletal system);

• to decrease worker discomfort;

• to improve the quality of work life;

• to improve quality and productivity; reductions in errors;

• to improve employee morale;

• reduced compensation and operating costs.

ERGONOMICS
ERGONOMICS
Factors associated with ergonomics are:
ERGONOMICS
PROXEMICS
• Proxemics is the study of human spatial requirements
and the effects that population density has on behavior,
communication and social interaction.

• How ‘humans use space’

• Four basic distances or zones have been identified:

• Intimate distance.

• Personal distance.

• Social distance.

• Public distance.
Edward T. Hall

• Hall coined the term in 1963Hall coined the term in 1963

• is the study of the codes that define space and territory in

human social relations
PROXEMICS
INTIMATE DISTANCE

• The distance ranges from touching to one &one-half

feet, It permits the expression of love, affection and
aggression.

• The common activities are hugging, whispering.

PERSONAL DISTANCE

• The distance ranges from one & one-half to four feet, it

can be also described as the “sip-and-mutter zone”.

• It is common at small social gatherings such as cocktail

parties, receptions & weddings.
PROXEMICS
SOCIAL DISTANCE

• The space ranges from 4 to 12 feet, it normally occurs in

formal two-way conversations.

• The seminar setting in the college, conference table in

the business depicts this situation.

PUBLIC DISTANCE

• The space ranges from 12 to 25 feet.

• In this the communication is usually formal and often

one-way, as in a public lecture.

• The exception to this is lively classroom discussion.

PROXEMICS
ANTHROPOLOGY
• Anthropology is the scientific study of human beings,
through time and space about human behavior or
physical character, human biology, cultures and
societies in both the present and the past.

• Human anthropology is complex and its branches

include sociocultural anthropology, linguistic
anthropology, biological anthropology, and
archaeology

• Anthropology seeks knowledge about what makes

people different, and about what they all have in
common.

• Anthropology considers how people's behaviors change

over time, and how people and seemingly dissimilar
cultures are different and the same.
What Do Anthropologists Do?
• Anthropologists are concerned with the description and
explanation of reality.

• They formulate and test hypotheses concerning

humankind so they can develop theories about our
species.

• Holistic: encompasses past, present, and future; biology,

society, language &culture.

• Anthropology deals with every aspect of human being.

• It not only studies human beings in the present context

but also studies human beings’ journey through the path
of evolution from the Pleistocene period till today’s
globalized world and also tries to trace the future path.

• Anthropology studies man irrespective of any

geographical boundary.

• It studies human being as a whole and also tries to study

differences within it.
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
• Cultural anthropology (social anthropology): a study of
living peoples and their cultures, including variation and
change.

• Culture refers to a people’s learned and shared

behaviors and beliefs devoted to studying human
cultures worldwide, both similarities and differences

• The study of customary patterns in human behavior,

thought, and feelings.

• Focuses on humans as culture-producing and culture-

reproducing creatures.

• Three main components: fieldwork, ethnography and

ethnology.
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
• Linguistic anthropology: the study of human
communication, including its origins, history, and
contemporary variation and change.

• Historical linguistics: the study of language changes

and how languages are related.

• Descriptive linguistics: or structural linguistics, the study

of how contemporary languages differ in formal
structures.

• Sociolinguistics: study of relationships among social

variation, social context, and linguistic variation,
including nonverbal communication
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
• First, they study language in everyday use or discourse,
and how it relates to power structures at local, regional,
and international levels

• Second, they look at the role of information technology

in communication, including the Internet, social media
such as Facebook, and cell phones.

• Third is attention to the increasingly rapid extinction of

indigenous languages and what can be done about it.
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
• Biological anthropology or physical anthropology—the
study of humans as biological organisms, including
evolution and contemporary variation.

• Biological anthropologists study the current, historical,

and pre-historical, bio-cultural aspects of humans to
understand human nature.

• They focus on humans as biological organisms (Hom

sapiens), tracing their biological origins, evolutionary
development, genetic diversity, and variation.

• They analyze fossils and observe living primates

(including humans)to reconstruct the ancestry of the
human species.
The “Four Fields” Approach in Anthropology
• Archaeology is the study of past human cultures
through their material remains.
RESULTS FROM ANTHROPOLOGY
• a wide understanding of contemporary cultures and
societies and an ability to understand processes of
change in the modern world

• the ability to relate anthropology to a broad range of

practical contexts

• an understanding of the nature of cultural and social

differences and how to approach the differences in the
contemporary world
 REFERENCES
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]