<a2> Dedication

This book is dedicated to Daphne and Ernie Hutchins, who know so much about

meaningful relationships; and to Roger, Robert, Shane and Rhiannon, whose

relationships mean so much.

<a2> Preface

The second edition of this book is long overdue! First written nearly ten years this

book was born largely out of frustration with the lack of attention the early

childhood sector gave to very young children. There have been changes, some of

which have helped address my frustration. Fortunately the latest understandings

from neurobiology have heightened professional interest in children under three

years of age. Nevertheless, this edition would not have made it to the shelves

without the urgings from the field for an updated version. Nor would it be so

without Margaret’s energy and enthusiasm for making it happen. All the updated

information has been provided by Margaret and I thank her for keeping the book

alive.

In the last ten years I have shifted my own focus and have been working more

and more with remote Aboriginal communities. Here, I am continuing to learn

more about the importance of relationships and relatedness. Ten years ago I

wrote that relationships are the core of who we are and must, therefore, be at the

centre of our work with children. I think this is worth reiterating ten years on, as is

the delight I still feel when in the company of caregivers who understand the

unique nature of each child and cannot stop telling endless stories about them.

The original motivation for this book came out of frustration with policy makers,

legislators and employers who did not understand the importance of the work

that caregivers do. Sadly nothing much has changed on this front. The inspiration
for the book continues to come from the caregivers and children themselves,

many of whom I have had the pleasure of working with over the years. Each one

of them taught me something new about the world and about myself.

Together we set out to tell the story of young children’s development and the way

in which caregivers can provide each child the opportunities, support, guidance

and, most importantly, the love they need to reach their full potential. This book

offers students, educators and caregivers a comprehensive approach to planning

programmes for infants and toddlers based upon the latest Australian, New

Zealand and international research. Its unique features include a thorough

discussion of the role caregivers play in fostering children’s development as well

as a detailed account of how each child actively influences his or her own

development.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of human development provides the

framework for the structure of this book and Malaguzzi’s inspirational

commitment to the importance of relationships in children’s lives provides the

backdrop for each chapter.

Throughout the book, we have provided examples of high quality practice, case

studies, activities and student reflections designed to actively engage students in

the process of thinking about and interpreting the information presented to them.

We are indebted to many families who have so willingly provided photographs of

their children. We have made every endeavour to contact each person who

appears in the photographs to gain consent to reproduce the images. The authors

and publisher would be pleased to hear from people who feel that they were not

aware that the images were to be reproduced in this text.

<a2> About the authors

Teresa Hutchins came to Australia in 1982 from England and is currently a regional

programme coordinator with World Vision Australia and is responsible for

managing the Warlpiri Early Childhood Care and Development project in the

Central Desert Region of Australia. Previously she taught in the Children and

Family Studies programme at Edith Cowan University and was a Senior Lecturer in

Child Care at Central Metropolitan College of TAFE in Western Australia. Teresa

has worked as a caregiver in a variety of children’s services in England and

Australia. Previous positions include working in day nurseries, hospitals, women’s

refuges and neighbourhood centres. She has research interests that include the

provision of children’s services in newly industrialising countries and remote

Aboriginal communities, children’s experience of migration, the needs of children

from non-English speaking backgrounds, infant and toddler care and development

as well as workforce development in the child care sector.

Margaret Sims came to Australia in 1992 from New Zealand and is now Professor

of Early Childhood at the University of New England. She has worked in New

Zealand in a variety of community-based agencies providing support for children

who have different needs and their families. For a number of years she ran a Child

Care Centre and Preschool for children with additional needs, developed one of

the earliest inclusion programmes in New Zealand and was involved in the

planning and implementation of a pilot family support programme for families

living in an at-risk area of a major city. Margaret has research interests which

include child care and family support. She has undertaken research using cortisol,

a biomarker of stress, to look at quality in child care programmes. She is

interested in integrated early childhood service delivery and in particular

workforce development in such services, and the biochemistry of

parenting/caring. She is a consultant on the “Life at …” TV documentary series

arising out of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. She lives in Armidale

and her family (3 children and 4 grandchildren) have now spread widely across

Australia and New Zealand so she travels between the two countries as often as

she can.
<a2> Acknowledgments

To Woodvale Child Care Centre, Yarm Gwanga, children and families from

Willowra Community in the Central desert, A'oga Fa'a Samoa, Kaiwhakahaere Te

Puna Kōhungahunga, Judie and Sandy, Jane and Gerard Hulst, Michael’s parents,

the students at UNE and my colleagues, friends and family for allowing us to take

or use their photographs.

To our families for their patience and understanding.

Every effort has been made to contact all the people who appear in photographs

in this book.
<a2> Introduction

Even before birth, the unborn child influences the environment into which he or

she will be born. In the later stages of pregnancy the mother may have to give up

work, take rests during the day and even change her diet. She may have made

some of those changes even before conceiving. These are significant lifestyle

changes influenced by the child before birth. Once born, children inevitably

influence their parents’ behaviour. Altered sleeping and eating patterns together

with changed patterns of social interaction are all common for new parents.

Similarly, babies’ eating and sleeping patterns are influenced by their families.

Some parents will feed on demand, for example, while others will have a more

structured routine. Thus, even in the early months of life children both affect and

are affected by the immediate environment in which they live.

<insert photo intro.5 here>

<caption> Children affect and are affected by the immediate environment in

which they live

As children grow older, their sphere of influence widens to encompass settings

beyond the home. These may include playgroups, child care centres, preschools

and schools. While the child’s influence is felt in these settings, the settings

themselves have a direct influence on the child’s own behaviour and

development. The two-way influence between the developing child and his or her
 environment is described by Bronfenbrenner (2005a) as reciprocal. Both children

and their environments are in a state of perpetual change, each depending on the

other.

The aim of this book is to provide a framework for planning programmes for

infants and toddlers that acknowledges the reciprocal nature of the relationship

between very young children and their environments. This framework illustrates

the importance of the context of children’s development and of building on each

child’s particular strengths, interests and needs.

<b1> The theoretical framework of the book

The reciprocal nature of the interaction between the child and his or her

environment is best illustrated by Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of

human development. Bronfenbrenner (1979, 2005a) used the concept of an

ecological system to describe the inter-relationship of the developing child and his

or her environment.

<insert photo intro.2 here>

<caption> Bronfenbrenner’s model is like a set of nested structures, each situated

inside the next like a set of stacking cups or Russian dolls

In Bronfenbrenner’s model of human development, the ecological system

comprises a set of nested structures, each situated inside the next like a set of

stacking cups or Russian dolls. Each level of the system influences and is
 influenced by the next. Thus there is constant two-way interaction between the

different components of the system which strives towards balance.

<b2> The macrosystem

The outer layer of the system, which is symbolised by the largest Russian doll in

the set, relates to the dominant ideologies and cultural patterns that organise all

other social institutions in any particular society. Bronfenbrenner refers to these

influences as the macrosystem.

These dominant ideologies and cultural patterns influence what kind of

government departments are provided to support families, how the legal system

is designed, how communities organise themselves and how families rear children.

It should be remembered that the sphere of influence is two-way: not only does

the macrosystem influence other components of the system, but those other

components influence the macrosystem. For example, in the past, beliefs and

cultural patterns have influenced our understanding of what a family is.

<insert photo intro.3 here>

<caption> Beliefs and cultural patterns have influenced our understanding of

what a family is

Traditionally in Australia and New Zealand a family was believed to be a

mother, father and their children. However, since the early colonial days, many

families have had only one parent, and others have had parents of the same sex.

Over the years these families have been able to influence the dominant view of a
 family, and are beginning to be recognised by other social institutions. In 1996 a

Sydney judge ruled that a lesbian should pay maintenance to her estranged

partner for the care of the children they had while they were living together. This

was the first time that a lesbian family had been recognised by the Australian legal

system. The way in which families choose to organise themselves can, over time,

influence the overriding ideology or cultural pattern of any given society.

An important and influential part of the macrosystem in New Zealand and

Australia is the concept of democracy. Democracy influences the kind of

government we have, the way society is organised, and the way in which families

care for children. For example, Te Whāriki, the New Zealand early childhood

curriculum reflects the principles of democracy. There are over-arching aims and

goals which were developed after extensive consultation with stakeholders, but

there is also flexibility to enable different services ( for example, Tagata Pasefika,

ngā kōhanga reo) to consult with tangata whenua in order to implement in ways

appropriate for their community, families and children.

<insert photo intro.4>

<caption> Different values in the macrosystem provide children with different

learning opportunities

REFLECTION Think about how you would you feel if women were not able to vote. Why is it so important that women have

the vote? What are the underlying beliefs and values that make us think that everyone has the right to vote?

<b2> The exosystem

The next layer of the ecological system, represented by the second-largest Russian doll,

relates to events that occur in settings where the child is not even present. These

settings include the parents’ workplaces and government institutions. For example,

parents who are under constant pressure from their employer to do overtime may not

have the time and emotional energy left to listen effectively to their young child’s

reading homework every night. Those parents who constantly lobby their employer to

implement family-friendly policies may achieve more flexible work hours, which enable

them to spend more time with their children (though engaging in the lobbying itself may

have taken time away from their children). Bronfenbrenner refers to this level of the

system as the exosystem.

REFLECTION How much time were your parents able to spend with you when you were 4 years old? What stopped your

parents from spending more time with you? Would your childhood have been any different if your father had stayed home and

looked after you? If yes, think about how it would have been different.

<b2> The microsystem

In Bronfenbrenner’s ecology of human development the innermost component of the

system, represented by the smallest Russian doll in the set, is the immediate setting

containing the developing child. The most influential settings for many children are the

home and the child care setting/school. Bronfenbrenner refers to these settings as

microsystems. Recent changes in child care policy at the level of government illustrate

the way in which the microsystem is influenced by other parts of the total system. The

Australian National Early Childhood Development Strategy (2009) indicates a level of

government attention to early childhood that has been lacking for decades. Out of this
we hope will arise a range of better services for children and families, and an increased

status for early childhood work which, we hope, will result in improvements in training

and employment conditions for early childhood workers. Better services, staffed by

more highly trained professionals working in a supportive context will lead to

significantly improved outcomes for our children.

<b2> The mesosystem

The mesosystem relates to the relationships and channels of communication between

the different microsystems responsible for raising the child. Bronfenbrenner uses the

example of the young child learning to read to describe the importance of the

mesosystem to the child’s development (1979). The child’s ability to learn to read is

influenced not only by the competence of the teacher but also by the quality of the

relationship between the school and the home. If the relationship and channels of

communication between the school and the home are strained, and/or if reading is not

considered important in the home environment, the child is less likely to be encouraged

to read at home and less likely to do well at school.

Table I.1 describes the different components of the ecological system and the way in

which they directly and indirectly influence the developing child.

<insert Table I.1 here>

<b1> Content of the book

This book is designed to provide a resource to students and caregivers caring for infants

and toddlers in group settings. In particular the book aims to support the relevant
curricula (New Zealand - Te Whāriki; Australia – Early Years Learning Framework) as

these relate to the care of children under 3 years of age. At the beginning of each of the

nine chapters the relevant goals/outcomes are listed, along with links to the Australian

Quality Improvement and Assurance Systems for Long Day Care and Family Day Care as

well as learning objectives for the chapter. Reflective exercises are included to assist the

reader in integrating and applying the theoretical concepts.

Chapter 1 examines the broad context of infant and toddler development — the way in

which particular beliefs about the value, needs and rights of women and very young

children have influenced the development of various child care services and

programmes over time. This chapter also provides the context of professional caregiving

and its evolution throughout history.

Chapter 2 looks at the latest neurobiological research which has been so influential in

bringing infant and toddler care to the attention of politicians. The original McCain and

Mustard report (1999) in Canada was hugely influential in driving Canadian policy for

the past decade and has had an impact around the world, both in raising political

awareness, but also in re-igniting academic interest in the early years. Attachment is

now shown to have a significant impact on children’s biology, and this has, in some

sense, validated the importance of relationships. We have been arguing the importance

of attachment for many years, and now we have biological evidence to support our

position. This chapter provides an over-view of this very important part of the infant and

toddler jigsaw.

<insert photo intro.1 here>

<caption> Attachment is now shown to have a significant impact on children’s biology,

and this has validated the importance of relationships

Chapter 3 examines the importance of building partnerships with parents and the role

of the child care service in building supportive communities. The chapter discusses the

importance of supporting the child’s primary attachment relationships. It also examines

the importance of developing mutual trust, shared goals, mutual accommodation and

regular two-way exchanges of open communication between the child’s family and his

or her caregivers.

Chapter 4 describes a process for planning programmes for infants and toddlers centred

on the strengths, interests and rights of individual children and their families. The

chapter also introduces caregivers to a curriculum framework, designed specifically for

infants and toddlers, which identifies caregiving, attachment and play as the major

features of infant and toddler programmes.

<insert photo intro.6 here>

<caption> The components of the infant and toddler curriculum framework are

caregiving, attachment and play

Chapter 5 examines in detail the influence of the physical and human environment

within the child care setting on infant and toddler development, discussing the

importance of organising space carefully and of eliminating hazards in the physical

environment. The chapter also examines the importance of high-quality human

environments that are characterised by responsive, respectful and reciprocal caregiving.

Chapter 6 examines the importance of attachment as the foundation for social and

emotional development, specifically detailing the way in which caregivers can use the

caregiving, attachment and play framework to foster the development of meaningful

and trusting relationships between children and their caregivers. The chapter also

discusses the way in which the programme must adapt and change in response to

children’s developing autonomy and sense of self.

Chapter 7 examines the way in which the child care programme responds to and fosters

children’s physical development. Adapting the programme to meet the changing

physical needs of infants and toddlers is a challenging task for caregivers. The chapter

uses the caregiving, attachment and play framework to consider how the programme

can be planned to meet the diverse sleep and nutritional needs of infants and toddlers,

illustrating how this framework can be used to provide opportunities for infants and

toddlers to practise their developing motor skills.

<insert photo intro.7 here>

<caption> The curriculum framework can be used to provide opportunities for infants

and toddlers to practise their developing motor skills

Chapter 8 examines approaches to cognitive and language development and how the

infant and toddler programme can integrate the different approaches to provide a
stimulating and challenging environment for infants and toddlers. The chapter illustrates

the use of the caregiving, attachment and play framework to plan experiences for

children that respond to their need to under stand and contribute to the world in which

they live.

Chapter 9 discusses the way in which caregivers of infants and toddlers can work

towards the goal of inclusion, discussing factors that may lead infants and toddlers to

have additional needs and how the programme can best respond to these needs. The

chapter focuses on the way each child’s particular strengths, interests and needs form

the basis of an inclusive infant and toddler programme.

<b2> Why an ecological approach to infant and toddler care?

An ecological approach to infant and toddler programmes has been adopted for the

framework for this book because it emphasises the importance of relationships and

interactions in the development of very young children. Like young children, the

ecological system is dynamic, ever-changing and developing. The ecological model

facilitates the perception of infants and toddlers as active agents, shaping their

environment as they interact with others. Infants and toddlers are not passive recipients

of external influence. Within the child care setting each child’s personality and

behaviour shapes the way in which the programme functions, just as the programme

influences the behaviour and development of each child. The acknowledgment of the

importance of this two-way relationship has huge implications for practice. A

programme that acknowledges the child as someone who actively shapes his or her

environment is very different from a programme that positions the child as a passive
‘sponge for learning’. The infant and toddler programme that acknowledges the agency

of the very young child will arrange its daily schedule around the children’s individual

routines. A programme that denies the child’s need to influence his or her environment

will arrange the children’s routines around an adult-imposed daily schedule.

<insert photo intro.8 here>

<caption> A programme that denies the child’s need to influence his or her environment

will arrange the children’s routines around an adult-imposed daily schedule

REFLECTION Think how you would feel if you had to get up at 7.30 after a late night out because breakfast was available only between

8 and 8.30am. Alternatively, think about how you would feel if you had to eat lunch on a full stomach because it was served just one

hour after you had eaten a special treat with your friend, and if you didn’t eat it now, there would be no food for several more

hours.

The ecological framework also enables exploration and understanding of the

relationship and inter-relatedness of such abstract concepts as culture and ideology to

the practical realities of caring for very young children. For example, in many societies

dominant ideologies about the role of women mean that men do not often take part in

nappy-changing, bathing or feeding. In other societies where these beliefs do not exist,

men are actively engaged in the day-to-day care of very small children. Cultural beliefs

influence whether or not newborn babies are put to the breast to suckle straight after

birth. In many societies the colostrum, which is produced by the mother in the first days

after birth, is believed to be beneficial to the child. Hence, the child is put to the breast

straight away. In other societies the colostrum is believed to be harmful to the child, and
the child is not put to the breast until the second or third day.

<insert photo intro.9>

<caption> In some cultures and families men are closely involved with child rearing

In this way, the ecological model helps us to understand why we make decisions about

which child care practices to adopt, how these child care practices should be carried

out, when they should occur and who should be responsible for them. By understanding

the influence of the different systems, caregivers can examine their own attitudes and

make informed decisions about how best to develop their programmes.

<b2> Criticisms of an ecological approach

The strength of the ecological model lies in its ability to illustrate the complex

interrelationships between different levels of the child’s environment and his or her

development. The ecological model has, however, been criticised as being simplistic.

Socio-cultural theory argues that children and culture are not simply separate entities

that influence each other, but that children are embedded in culture (Rogoff, 2003). In

addition, recent biological research has increased interest in gene-environemnt

interactions and how the social context influences these (Shanahan & Hofer, 2005).

Bronfenbrenner attempted to address some of these issues in the last collation of his

work before his death (Bronfenbrenner, 2005b). He argued that ecological theory is

sufficiently broad as to easily incorporate the ideas associated with socio-cultural

theory, and to include the new ideas around epigenetics (the gene-environment inter-
play).

This broad portrayal of ecological theory recognises the multiplicity of cultural

influences on the child, for example. The culture and values of the child care programme

may represent a different ideological and cultural blueprint from that of the home. Both

New Zealand and Australia are characterised by a multitude of different groups, each

with its own particular cultural scripts, values and beliefs. Thus conflict and change are

constant phenomena facing those caring for very young children in group care.

Conflict can be incorporated into the ecological model, however, by acknowledging that

it exists at every level of the ecosystem. Within microsystems, for example, conflict can

be found between the young child’s needs for both attachment and autonomy. There

may be conflict between siblings needs and even between the needs of the child’s

parents. Within the mesosystem conflict is common for many young children, who face

differences in the norms of mainstream society and traditional family values. At the

level of the exosystem conflict is experienced between different services and sectors as

they compete for time and resources. For example, conflict can exist between the

parent’s workplace and the school, which insists on a parent roster for the school

canteen. Conflict commonly occurs within the macrosystem in relation to racial/religious

differences, class conflict, or fundamental tensions between individualistic and

collectivist values.

The challenge for caregivers is to acknowledge the conflicts inherent in the ecological

system, and develop strategies for assisting children and their families to confront and

over come these conflicts. For example, a mother and father who have different cultural
and/or family backgrounds and experiences of child-rearing may find themselves in

conflict over how to discipline their young children. Caregivers need to be able to

understand the different cultural patterns underlying such a conflict in order to help the

parents find a positive solution to their problem. Equally, caregivers themselves are

often confronted with conflicts arising over different approaches to child-rearing. When

caregivers understand the different cultural blueprints that are operating they are

better able to bridge the divide between different and sometimes conflicting belief

systems.

The existence of cultural conflicts in child care means that it is increasingly necessary for

caregivers to draw on anthropological frame works to help them understand why

conflict might occur. The ‘developmental niche’ concept, first introduced in this context

by Super and Harkness (1988), encourages us to consider the physical and social setting

of the child, the beliefs and attitudes of caregivers, and the customs of child care and

child-rearing. These three components help children negotiate their experiences within

the broader community. The framework enables an exploration and understanding of

difference and how children accommodate difference into their understanding of the

larger society. The ‘developmental niche’ is easily incorporated into an ecological

framework, and provides a more detailed understanding of how customs of child care,

child-rearing and parental beliefs influence children’s interactions with the broader

environment.

<insert photo intro.10 here>

<caption> we need to understand children’s development in a socio-cultural context

As an overarching framework, the ecological model has also been criticised for not

enabling the depth of understanding provided by more focused theories of human

development. This could be a real limitation, but it can be overcome by the use of

complementary theories to explain particular aspects of development within the

ecological framework. Certainly the development of infants and toddlers could not fully

be understood without the contributions made by Piaget, Erickson, Vygotsky and

Mahler. In particular the work of Vygotsky, which emphasises the crucial role of the

adult and more experienced peer in facilitating children’s development, is important.

Equally, new understandings about the importance of attachment and the development

of the brain during the first two years of a child’s life are critical to understanding the

processes at work in young children’s development.

<b2> The role of the adult

The central thesis of this book is that human relationships and interactions are the

critical factors in young children’s development. Strong attachments characterised by

reciprocal activity enhance young children’s responsiveness to their environment and

influence motivation to explore, manipulate, elaborate and imagine (Raikes & Edwards,

2009). Increasingly it is recognised that the maintenance of primary attachment

relationships depends on the availability and involvement of another adult or third party

who actively supports and encourages these relationships. The role of the caregiver

must extend beyond the day-to-day care of children to providing support to other family

members or significant others in children’s lives. An important part of that support is the
establishment of effective channels for communication, a willingness to find a

compromise, and the development of trust between family members and the child care

staff. This trust is built when the relationship between caregivers and family members is

genuine and truly collaborative.

Thus, as Professor Loris Malaguzzi (1994) from the early childhood programmes in

Reggio Emilia in Italy reminded us over a decade ago, the major role of the caregiver is

as creator of relationships rather than as transmitter of knowledge. According to

Malaguzzi, young children are constantly in search of relationships, not only between

people but between objects, thoughts and with the environment. The adult must be

prepared to enjoy and to show children how to enjoy relationships. Children bring to the

programme relationships, feelings, and experiences that form their reality. This requires

caregivers to position themselves in direct relationship to the child.

<insert photo intro.11>

<caption> The major role of the caregiver is as creator of relationships

A theoretical model for this relationship may be found in the discipline of social

phenomenology, introduced by Schultz (Holstein & Gubrium, 2005). In social

phenomenology the focus rests on how each individual understands the world, and

constructs that understanding through relationships with others. For such

understanding to occur, the caregiver must share the same space and time as the child

and recognise the child as equal in all respects, including the child’s own understanding
of self and attempts at expressing that self to others.
<Table heading> Table I.1: The ecological system

Ecological level Definition Examples Issues affecting

infant and toddler
development
Microsystem A setting where Home, child care Quality of
people engage in centre, playgroup interactions
face-to-face Responsiveness of
interaction adults
Quality of
relationships
Mesosystem The relations Relations and Respect for each
between two or communication other
more settings in between family and Support for each
which the child child care staff other
actively participates
Collaborative
decision-making
Exosystem One or more Parents’ workplaces Flexibility in work
settings that do not hours
Services available in
involve the child but
the community Family-friendly
have an indirect policies
effect on the child Social capital in the
community Access to and hours
of child care
Availability of
support for parents
Levels of
community violence
/ perception of
community safety
Macrosystem Blueprints for how Ideology Individualist or
the other collectivist culture
Religion
components of the Democratic or
system should Culture
autocratic
operate Social policy orientation
How parenting is
defined
Who parents
<b1> Reference List

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Experiments by nature

and design. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005a). Ecological Systems Theory. In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.),
Making human beings Human. Bioecological perspectives on Human
Development. (pp. 106 - 173). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (Ed.). (2005b). Making human beings Human. Bioecological
perspectives on human development. . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Holstein, J., & Gubrium, J. (2005). Interpretive practice and social action. In N. Denzin &
Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. (pp. 483 - 505).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Malaguzzi, L. (1994). Your image of the child: where teaching begins. Child Care
Information Exchange, 3, 52 - 56.
McCain, M., & Mustard, J. (1999). Reversing the real brain drain. Early Years Study. Final
Report. Report presented to the Hon. Michael Harris, Premier of Ontario,
Canada, February 16 1999. Retrieved 1 July, 2000
Raikes, H., & Edwards, C. (2009). Extending the dance in infant and toddler caregiving.
Enhancing attachment and relationships. Baltimore, MA: Paul H Brookes.
Rogoff, B. (Ed.). (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Shanahan, M., & Hofer, S. (2005). Social Context in Gene-Environment Interactions:
Retrospect and Prospect. The Journals of Gerontology, 60B, 65 - 75.
Super, C., & Harkness, S. (1988). The developmental niche: a conceptualisation at the
interface of child and culture. International Journal of Behavioural Development,
9, 545-569.