Controller

Introduction:
The automatic controller determines the value of controlled variable, compare the actual value to the
desired value (reference input), determines the deviation and produces a control signal that will reduce
the deviation to zero or to a smallest possible value. The method by which the automatic controller
produces the control signal is called mode of control or control action. Figure 10.1 is a block diagram of
an industrial control system, which consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant and a sensor
(measuring element). The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a very low
power level, and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The output of an automatic controller is fed to
an actuator, such as an electric motor, a hydraulic motor or a pneumatic motor or valve. (The actuator is
a power device that produces the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the output
signal will approach the reference input signal).
The sensor or measuring element is a device that converts the output variable into another suitable
variable, such as a displacement, pressure or voltage that can be used to compare the output to the
reference input signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop system. The set point of
the controller must be converted to a reference input with the same units as the feedback signal from the
sensor or measuring element.

Automatic controller

Error detector
Reference
input Output
Amplifier Actuator Plant
(Set point) +
-
Actuating
error signal

Sensor
(Measuring element)

Figure 10.1: Block diagram of an industrial control system.

Classifications of Controllers:
Controllers are classified depending upon the type of controlling action used. Therefore, they can be
classified as,
(i) Two-position or ON-OFF controllers.
(ii) Proportional (P) controllers.
(iii) Integral (I) controllers.
(iv) Derivative (D) controllers.
(v) Proportional-plus-integral (PI) controllers.
(vi) Proportional-plus-derivative (PD) controllers.
(vii) Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID) controllers.

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 They can also be classified according to the power source used for actuating mechanisms, such as
electrical, electronics pneumatic and hydraulic controllers. Hydraulic controllers are used for controlling
heavy loads; pneumatic controllers are suitable for shop floor applications.
The selection of a particular type of controller depends on the nature of plant, operating conditions such
as safety, cost, availability, accuracy, weight and size.

Two Position or ON-OFF Controller:

These types of controllers are simple and inexpensive and are generally employed on home heating
systems, domestic water heaters and industrial control systems.

In this type of control the output of the controller is quickly changed to either a maximum or minimum
value depending upon whether the controlled variable ( b ) is greater or less than the set point or in other
words depends upon the actuating error signal (e). The minimum value is usually zero.
Let, m = output of the controller.
M 1 = Maximum value of output of the controller.
M 2 = Minimum value of output of the controller.
e = actuating error signal or deviation.
The equations for two position control will be
m = M1 When e > 0.
m = M2 When e < 0.
The minimum value M 2 is usually either zero or - M 1
Differential gap

e m e m
Set
Set
point
+ point +
- b - b

(a) (b)
Figure 10.2.
The block diagram of two position controllers is shown in fig.10.2. In On-OFF controller there is an
overlap as the error increases through zero. This overlap creates a span of error. During this span of
error, there is no change in the controller output. This span of error is known as dead zone or dead zone
or dead band. Dead band is shown in fig. 10.3.

From fig. 10.3, it is clear that till the error changes by Δe there is no change in the controller output.
Similarly, while decreasing the error must decrease beyond Δe below 0 to change the controller output.
Hence during 2Δe there is no change in the controller output. This zone is known as differential gap.
The differential gap can also be defined as the range through which the actuating error signal must move
before the switching occurs.

In this type of controller, the control variable always oscillates with a frequency which increases with
decreasing width of the dead zone (differential gap). The decrease in dead zone, the number of ON-OFF

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 switching of controller increases, hence therefore the useful life of the component decreases. Hence dead
band should be designed to prevent the oscillations in ON-OFF controllers.
Controller output

Dead zone
M1(100 %)

M2(0 %)

Error (e)
-Δe 0 Δe
Figure 10.3
Two position control mode are used in room air conditioners, heaters, liquid level control in large
volume tank.
The example of this type of controller is a room heater. Figure 10.4 shows the controlling of
temperature. If the temperature drops below the set point, an error signal is produced by the error
detector, this error signal energized the relay and the heater turned ON. Similarly, if the temperature
increases above a set point, the heater is turned OFF.
Supply

Output
Error (room temp.)
Temp. + Relay Heater
(Set point)
-

Actual temp.
Figure 10.4.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER:
In a controller with proportional control action, there is a continuous linear relation between the
output of the controller m (manipulated variable) and actuating error signal e (deviation).
Mathematically,
M ( s)
m(t )  K p e(t ) ; Or M ( s )  K p E ( s ) ; So, K p  …………….(10.1)
E (s)
Where, K p is known as proportional gain or proportional sensitivity. The block diagram of proportional
controller is shown in figure 10.5.

E(s) M(s)
Kp
+
- B(s) - -
-
-
Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6

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 Consider the liquid level system shown in figure 10.6. in this system the float lever is directly
connected to the control value. When the level of the liquid rise, the valve close in proportionate amount
this reduces the inflow to the vessel and vice versa. The inverse of proportional gain or proportional
sensitivity is the proportional band and is defined as the change in level necessary to operate the valve
through full stroke. Basically proportional controller is an amplifier with adjustable gain.

INTEGRAL CONTROLLER:
In a controller with integral control action, the output of the controller is changed at a rate
which proportional to the actuating error signal e(t).
Mathematically,
d
m(t )  K i e(t ) ………………………………………………….. (10.2)
dt
where K i is a constant. Equation 10.2 can also be written as,
m(t )  K i  e(t )  m(0) ………………………………………… (10.3)
where m(0) = control output at t = 0. Laplace transform of equation 10.3
M ( s) K i
sM ( s )  K i E ( s ) ; Or  …………………………. (10.4)
E ( s) s
Equation 10.4 is the transfer function of integral controller. The block diagram of integral controller is
shown in fig. 10.7.
e(t )
A
E (s )
Ki M (s ) t
+ s
- m(t )

Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8

The inverse of K i is called integral time Ti and defined as the time of change of output caused by a unit
change of actuating error signal. The step response of integral controller is shown in figure 10.8.

From the figure 10.8 it is clear that for positive error, the output of the controller is ramp (positive), for
zero error, there is no change in the output of the controller and for negative error the output of the
controller is negative ramp. The integral control action is also known as “Re-set control”.
DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:
In a controller with derivative control action the output of the controller depends on the rate of change of
actuating error signal e(t).
d
Mathematically, m(t )  K d e(t ) ……………………………………………… (10.5)
dt
Where K d is the known as derivative gain constant.
Laplace transform of equation 10.5
M ( s)
M ( s )  K d sE ( s ) ; Or  sK d …………………………… (10.6)
E ( s)

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Equation (10.6) is the transfer function of the controller. The block diagram is shown in figure 10.9.

From equation 10.5 it is clear that when the error is zero or constant, the output of the controller
will be zero. Therefore this type of controller cannot be used alone. For this type of controller the gain
should be small. The derivative control action also known as rate control.

E (s ) E (s )
sK d M (s ) 1
Kp  M (s )
+ + sTi
- -

Figure 10.9 Figure 10.10

PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-INTEGRAL CONTROLLER:
This is the combination of proportional and integral control action.
Mathematically,
t
m(t )  K p e(t ) + K i  e(t )dt ……………………………………….. (10.7)
0
t
1
Or, m(t )  K p e(t ) + e(t )d (t ) ………………………………………..(10.8)
Ti 0
Laplace transform of equation 10.8
1 M (s) 1
M (s)  K p E ( s) + E ( s ) ; Or  Kp  ………………… (10.9)
sTi E ( s) sTi
Block diagram is shown in figure 10.10.

In equation both parameters Kp and Ti are adjustable. Ti is called integral time. The inverse of integral
time is called reset rate. Reset rate is defined as the number of times per minute that the proportional part
of the response is duplicated. Therefore, Reset rate is also known as “repeats per minute”.

Op-amp-circuit realization of the PI controller, the transfer function of the two-op-amp circuit in figure
10.11 is
E ( s ) R2 R2
Gc ( s )  o   ……………………………………… (10.10)
Ein ( s ) R1 sR1C2
Comparing equation 10.9 and equation 10.10, we have
R 1 R2
K p = 2 & K i (or )= …………………………………… (10.11)
R1 Ti R1C 2
The transfer function of the three-op-amp circuit in figure 10.12 is
E ( s ) R2 1
Gc ( s )  o   …………………………………….. (10.12)
Ein ( s ) R1 sRi Ci
Thus, the parameters of the PI controller are related to the circuit parameters as
R 1 1
K p = 2 & K i (or )= …………………………………… (10.13)
R1 Ti Ri C i

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Given Kp, the value of Ki should not be too small, or the capacitor C2 of the op-amp-circuit
implementation would be too large. The PI control increases the system type by 1, thus improving the
steady state error by one order. The PI controller is essentially a low-pass filter.

R2 C2 R
R1
- R
Ein(s) -
+
+ Eo(s)

Figure 10.11 Two-op-amp circuits.

R1 R2
- R

+
Ein(s) Ci R
-
Ri Eo(s)
+
-

+
Figure 10.12: Three Op-Amp circuits.

The advantages and disadvantages of a properly designed PI controller as

1. Improving damping and reducing maximum overshoot.
2. Increasing rise time & decreasing BW.
3. Improving gain margin, phase margin, and Mr .
4. Filtering out high-frequency noise.
5. Selecting a proper combination of Ki and Kp so that the capacitor in the circuit implementation
of the controller is not excessively large is more difficult than in the case of the PD controller.
PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:
This is the combination of proportional and derivative control action.
d
Mathematically, m(t )  K p e(t ) + K d e(t ) ………………………………………. (10.14)
dt
Laplace transform of equation 10.14
M ( s)
M ( s )  K p E ( s ) + sK d E (s ) ; Or  K p  sK d …………………… (10.15)
E ( s)
The block diagram is shown in figure 10.13
M ( s)
Some time transfer function of PD is written as  K p (1  sTd ) . Td is known as derivative time.
E ( s)
Derivative time is defined as the time interval by which the rate action advances the effect of the

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proportional control action or in other words derivative time is defined as the amount of lead, expressed
in units of time, that the control action is given.
E (s )
K p  sK d
M(s)
+
-

Figure 10.13.
Op-amp-circuit realization of the PD controller, the transfer function of the two-op-amp circuit in figure
10.14 is
E ( s ) R2
Gc ( s )  o   sC1 R2 ……………………….. (10.16)
Ein ( s ) R1
Comparing equation 10.15 and equation 7.16, we have
R
K p = 2 & K d = R2 C1 ………………………………………… (10.17)
R1
The transfer function of the three-op-amp circuit in figure 10.15 is
E ( s ) R2
Gc ( s )  o   sC d Rd ….…………………………………. (10.18)
Ein ( s ) R1
Thus, the parameters of the PD controller are related to the circuit parameters as
R
K p = 2 & K d = Rd C d …………..………………………………… (10.19)
R1
R2 R

R1
Ein(s) -
R
-
C1 + E0(s)
+

Figure 10.14 Two-op-amp circuit.

R2
R1
- R
R
+
Ein(s) R
Rd -

+ Eo(s)
-
Cd
+

Figure 10.15 Three Op-Amp circuits.

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 PD control will have an effect on a steady state error only if the error varies with time. The PD
controller is a high pass filter. The PD controller has the disadvantage that it accentuates high frequency
noise. Though it is not effective with lightly damped or lightly damped or initially unstable systems, a
properly designed PD controller can affect the performance of a control system in the following ways:
1. Improving damping and reducing maximum overshoot.
2. Reducing rise time and settling time.
3. Increasing BW.
4. Improving GM, PM, and Mr.
5. Possibly accentuating noise at higher frequencies.
6. Possibly requiring a relatively large capacitor in circuit implementation.

PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-INTEGRAL-PLUS-DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:

The PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early governors
and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process control today,
more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control. PID controllers
are today found in all areas where control is used. The controllers come in many different forms. There
are stand-alone systems in boxes for one or a few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred
thousands yearly. PID control is an important ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers
are also embedded in many special-purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic,
sequential functions, selectors and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems
used for energy production, transportation and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies
such as model predictive control are also organized hierarchically. PID control is used at the lowest
level; the multivariable controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID
controller can thus be said to be the “bread and buttertt” of control engineering. It is an important
component in every control engineer’s tool box.

PID controllers have survived many changes in technology from mechanics and pneumatics to
microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a
dramatic influence on the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on
microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning, gain
scheduling and continuous adaptation.

The classical three-term PID controller:

R + e(t) m(t) Y
Controller Plant
-

Figure 10.16
First, let’s take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the schematic
shown above fig. 10.16. The combination of proportional (P), integral (I) and derivative (D) control
action is called PID control action and the controller is called three action controllers. The variable (e(t))
represents the tracking error, the difference between the desired input value (R) and the actual output
(Y). This error signal (e(t)) will be sent to the PID controller and the controller computes both the

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derivative and the integral of this error signal. The signal (m(t)) just past the controller is now equal to
the proportional gain (Kp) times the magnitude of the error plus the integral gain (Ki = 1/Ti) times the
integral of the error plus the derivative gain (Kd) times the derivative of the error.

This signal (m(t)) will be sent to the plant and the new output (Y) will be obtained. This new output (Y)
will be sent back to the sensor again to find the new error signal (e(t)). The controller takes this new
error signal and computers its derivative and its integral again. This process goes aona on.
Mathematically,
t
1 d
m(t )  K p e(t ) +  e(t )d (t ) + K d e(t ) ……………………………………. (10.20)
Ti 0 dt
M (s) 1
Laplace transform,  Kp   sK d …………………………………………. (10.21)
E ( s) sTi
The block diagram is shown in figure 7.17

E (s )
1
Kp   sK d M(s)
+ sTi
-

Figure. 10.17.

Ein(s) R1 R2 R
C2
- R
-
C1 +
+ Eo(s)

Figure 10.18

Op-amp-circuit realization of the PID controller, the transfer function of the two-op-amp circuit
in figure 10.18 is
E ( s) R C 1
Gc ( s )  o ( 2  1)  sC1 R2 ……………………….. (10.22)
Ein ( s ) R1 C 2 sC 2 R1
Comparing equation 7.21 and equation 7.22, we have
R C 1 1
K p = 2 + 1 ; K i (or ) = & K d = R2 C1 ………………………..(10.23)
R1 C 2 Ti R1C 2

The Characteristics of P, I and D controllers

The characteristics of PID control action (i) no oscillations (ii) improves the transient response (iii)
improves the steady state response. A proportional controller (Kp) wil have the effect of reducing the rise
time and will reduce but never eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the
effect of eliminating the steady-state error but it may make the transient response worse. A derivative
control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot and

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improving the transient response. Effects of each of controllers Kp , Kd and Ki on a closed-loop system
are summarized in the table shown below.

Controller Response Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time Steady state error
Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because Kp , Kd and Ki are dependent of each
other. In fact, changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two. For this reason, the
table should only be used as a reference when you are determining the values for Kp , Kd and Ki .

Introduction to Feedforward Control

The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important disturbance variables and take
corrective action before they upset the process. Feedback control is an important technique that is widely
used in the process industries.
Its main advantages are as follows:
 Corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates from the set point, regardless
of the source and type of disturbance.
 Feedback control requires minimal knowledge about the process to be controlled; it particular, a
mathematical model of the process is not required, although it can be very useful for control
system design.
 The ubiquitous PID controller is both versatile and robust. If process conditions change, retuning
the controller usually produces satisfactory control.
Feedforward control has several disadvantages:
 The disturbance variables must be measured on-line. In many applications, this is not feasible.
 To make effective use of feedforward control, at least a crude process model should be available.
In particular, we need to know how the controlled variable responds to changes in both the
disturbance and manipulated variables. The quality of feedforward control depends on the
accuracy of the process model.
 Ideal feedforward controllers that are theoretically capable of achieving perfect control may not
be physically realizable. Fortunately, practical approximations of these ideal controllers often
provide very effective control. The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important
disturbance variables and take corrective action before they upset the process
Example of Feedforward Control:

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 Fig. 4: The feedback control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.
A boiler drum with a conventional feedback control system is shown in Fig. 4. The level of the boiling
liquid is measured and used to adjust the feed-water flow rate.
 This control system tends to be quite sensitive to rapid changes in the disturbance variable, steam
flow rate, as a result of the small liquid capacity of the boiler drum.
 Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a result of steam demands made by downstream
processing units.
Ratio Control System
Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control that has had widely used in the process industries.
The objective is to maintain the ratio of two process variables as a specified value. The two variables are
usually flow rates, a manipulated variable ‘u’, and a disturbance variable ‘d’. Thus, the ratio “R = u/d” is
controlled rather than the individual variables, where u and d are physical variables, not deviation
variables.
The objective of ratio control system is to maintain the ratio of two variables at a specified value.

Fig. 5.
In this figure 5 the ratio control system consists of the flow transmitter which senses the flow rate of the
first pipe and second flow control. The flow controller controls the flow of the second pipe with respect
to the flow in the first pipe.

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Example of ratio control system
A common example is when the ratio of two reactants must be controlled is shown in the figure 6. One
of the flow rates is measured but allowed to float, that is, not regulated.

Figure 6.
The outer flow rate is both measured and adjusted. The outer flow rate is both measured and adjusted to
provide the specified control ratio. The flow rate of reactant A is measured and added with appropriate
scaling, to the measurement of flow rate B. the controller reacts to the resulting input signal by
adjustment of the control valve in the reactant B input line.
Application of ratio control system:
 Setting the relative amounts of components in blending operations.
 Holding the fuel-air ratio to a furnace at the optimum value.
 Maintaining a stoichiometric ratio of reactance of a reactor.
 Keeping a specified reflux ratio for a distillation column etc.

What are the Essential Requirements for Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) Ship?

Essential requirements for any unattended machinery space (UMS) Ship to able to sail at sea are
enumerated in the SOLAS 1974 Chapter II-1, regulations 46 to regulation 53. Requirements for
Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) Ship are as:
Fire Precaution
 Arrangement should be provided on UMS ship to detect and give alarm in case of fire.
 In the boiler air supply casing and uptake.
 In scavenge space of propulsion machinery.
 In engines of power 2250 Kw and above or cylinders having bore more than 300mm should be
provided with oil mist detector for crankcase or bearing temperature monitor or either of two.

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Protection against Flooding
 Bilge well in UMS ship should be located and provided in such a manner that the accumulation
of liquid is detected at normal angle of heel and trim and should also have enough space to
accommodate the drainage of liquid during unattended period.
 In case of automatic starting of bilge pump, the alarm should be provided to indicate that the
flow of liquid pumped is more than the capacity of the pump.

Control of Propulsion Machinery from Navigation Bridge

 The ship should be able to be controlled from bridge under all sailing conditions. The bridge
should be able to control the speed, direction of thrust, and should be able to change the pitch in
case of controllable pitch propeller.
 emergency stop should be provided on navigating bridge, independent of bridge control system.
 The remote operation of the propulsion should be possible from one location at a time; at such
connection interconnected control position are permitted.
 The number of consecutive automatic attempt which fails to start the propulsion machinery shall
be limited to safeguard sufficient starting air pressure.
Centralized control & instruments are required in Machinery Space
 Centralized control system should be there so that engineers may be called to the machinery
space during emergencies from wherever they are.
Automatic Fire Detection
 Alarms and detection should operate very rapidly and effectively. It should be placed at
numerous well sited places for quick response of the detectors.
Fire Extinguishing System
 There should be arrangement for fire extinguishing system other than the conventional hand
extinguishers which can be operated remotely from machinery space. The station must give
control of emergency fire pumps, generators, valves, extinguishing media etc.
Alarm System
 A comprehensive alarm system must be provided for control & accommodation areas.

Automatic Start of Emergency Generator

 Arrangement for starting of emergency generator and automatic connection to bus bar must be
provided in case of blackout condition. Apart from that following points are also to be noted.

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 a. Local hand control of essential machineries like steering, emergency generator starting,
emergency start for main engine etc.
b. Adequate settling tank storage capacity.
c. Regular testing & maintenance of machinery alarms & instruments.

What is Cascade Control?

In single-loop control, the controller’s set point is set by an operator, and its output drives a final control
element. For example: a level controller driving a control valve to keep the level at its set point.

Single Loop Control

In a cascade control arrangement, there are two (or more) controllers of which one controller’s output
drives the set point of another controller. For example: a level controller driving the set point of a flow
controller to keep the level at its set point. The flow controller, in turn, drives a control valve to match
the flow with the set point the level controller is requesting.

Cascade Control

The controller driving the set point (the level controller in the example above) is called the primary,
outer, or master controller. The controller receiving the set point (flow controller in the example) is
called the secondary, inner or slave controller.

What are the Advantages of Cascade Control?

There are several advantages of cascade control, and most of them boil down to isolating a slow control
loop from nonlinearities in the final control element. In the example above the relatively slow level
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control loop is isolated from any control valve problems by having the fast flow control loop deal with
these problems.
Imagine that the control valve has a stiction problem (see blog on valve problems.) Without the flow
control loop, the level control loop (driving the sticky valve) will continuously oscillate in a stick-slip
cycle with a long (slow) period, which will quite likely affect the downstream process. With the fast
flow control loop in place, the sticky control valve will cause it to oscillate, but at a much shorter (faster)
period due to the inherent fast dynamic behavior of a well-tuned flow loop. It is likely that the fast
oscillations will be attenuated by the downstream process without having much of an adverse effect.
Or imagine that the control valve has a nonlinear flow characteristic. This requires that the control loop
driving it be detuned to maintain stability throughout the possible range of flow rates. If the level
controller directly drives the valve, it must be detuned to maintain stability – possibly resulting in very
poor level control. In a cascade control arrangement with a flow control loop driving the valve, the flow
loop will be detuned to maintain stability. This will result in relatively poor flow control, but because the
flow loop is dynamically so much faster than the level loop, the level control loop is hardly affected.

When Should Cascade Control be Used?

Cascade control should always be used if you have a process with relatively slow dynamics (like level,
temperature, composition, humidity) and a liquid or gas flow, or some other relatively-fast process, has
to be manipulated to control the slow process. For example: changing cooling water flow rate to control
condenser pressure (vacuum), or changing steam flow rate to control heat exchanger outlet temperature.
In both cases, flow control loops should be used as inner loops in cascade arrangements.

Does Cascade Control Have any Disadvantages?

Cascade control has three disadvantages. One, it requires an additional measurement (usually flow rate)
to work. Two, there is an additional controller that has to be tuned. And three, the control strategy is
more complex – for engineers and operators alike. These disadvantages have to be weighed up against
the benefits of the expected improvement in control to decide if cascade control should be implemented.
When Should Cascade Control Not be Used?
Cascade control is beneficial only if the dynamics of the inner loop are fast compared to those of the
outer loop. Cascade control should generally not be used if the inner loop is not at least three times faster
than the outer loop, because the improved performance may not justify the added complexity.
In addition to the diminished benefits of cascade control when the inner loop is not significantly faster
than the outer loop, there is also a risk of interaction between the two loops that could result in
instability – especially if the inner loop is tuned very aggressively.
How Should Cascade Controls be Tuned?
A cascade arrangement should be tuned starting with the innermost loop. Once that one is tuned, it is
placed in cascade control, or external set point mode, and then the loop driving its set point is tuned. Do
not use quarter-amplitude-damping tuning rules (such as the unmodified Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-
Coon rules) to tune control loops in a cascade structure because it can cause instability if the process
dynamics of the inner and outer loops are similar.

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