UNIT SIX Math 151

UNIT SIX
Math 151

YAO ELIKEM AYEKPLE (PhD)

KNUST

March 5, 2024

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UNIT SIX Math 151

SQUARE MATRICES

The diagonal [or main diagonal] of an n-square matrix A = (aij ) consists

of the elements a11 , a22 , . . . , ann .
Example 6.1
Find the diagonal of the matrix
 
1 2 3
A = 4 5 6
7 8 9

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Example 6.2
 
t −2 3
Find the diagonal of the matrix B = .
−4 t +5

Example 6.3
 
1 2 −3
Find the diagonal of the matrix C = .
4 −5 6

The trace of an n-square matrix A = (aij ) is the sum of its diagonal

elements; that is,
n
X
tr(A) = a11 + a22 + . . . + ann ≡ aii .
i=1

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Example 6.4
Find the trace of the A in Example 6.1.

Example 6.5
Find the trace of the matrix B in Example 6.2.

Theorem
Suppose A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are n-square matrices and k is a scalar.
Then:
label=() tr(A + B) = tr(A) + tr(B),

lbbel=() tr(kA) = k · tr(A),

lcbel=() tr(AB) = tr(BA).

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Example 6.6
Establish that,tr(AB) ̸= tr(A) · tr(B).

Let A = (aij ) be a square matrix of order n with entries in R, having the

property aij = aji for all i, j. Then tr(A2 ) ≥ 0.

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Definition :Identity Matrix

The n-square identity [or unit] matrix, denoted In or simply I , is the
square matrix with 1s on the diagonal and 0s elsewhere.

Example 6.7
Exhibit the identity matrices of order 2,3,and 4.

The Kronecker delta is defined as:

(
0 if i ̸= j
δij =
1 if i = j

Accordingly, I = (δij ).

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Example 6.8
Find the trace of In .

Example 6.9
If A is an m × n matrix, show that Im A = A.

Example 6.10
If A is an m × n matrix, show that AIn = A.

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Definition : Scalar matrix Dk

The scalar matrix Dk belonging to a scalar k is

Dk ≡ kI .

Example 6.11
Find the scalar matrices of orders 2,3,and 4 corresponding to the scalar
k=5.

Example 6.12
Show that Dk A = kA for a scalar matrix Dk of proper order.

Example 6.13
Show that BDk = kB, for a scalar matrix Dk of proper order.

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Example 6.14
Establish the following algebraic properties of scalar matrices of the same
order:
(i) Dk + Dp = Dk+p
(ii) Dk Dp = Dkp

Definition : Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix D = (dij ) is diagonal if its non-diagonal entries are all
zero. Such a matrix is frequently denoted as

D = diag(d11 , d22 , . . . , dnn ),

where some or all of the dii may be zero.

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Example 6.15
Write out diag(3, −7, 2), diag(4, −5), and diag(6, −3, −9, 1).

Example 6.16
Find AB, where A = diag(2, −3, 5) and B = diag(7, 4, 6).

Example 6.17
Let D = (dij ) be an m-square diagonal matrix, and let A = (aij ) be an
m × n matrix. Show that DA may be obtained by multiplying each row
Ri of A by dii .

Example 6.18
Let D = (dij ) be an n-square diagonal matrix, and let B = (bij ) be an
m × n matrix. Show that BD may be obtained by multiplying each
column Ci of B by dii .

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Example 6.19
Show that D T = D, for any diagonal D = (dij ).

Example 6.20
Show that I T = I .

Example 6.21
Does 0T = 0?

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UNIT SIX Math 151

ALGEBRA OF SQUARE MATRICES. COMMUTING

MATRICES

Definition: Algebra of Matrices

A nonempty collection of matrices is called an algebra (of matrices) if Y
is closed under the operations of matrix addition, scalar multiplication of
a matrix, and matrix multiplication.

Example 6.22
Does the set Dn of all n-square diagonal matrices form an algebra of
matrices?

Example 6.23
Is the set of all n-square scalar matrices an algebra?

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Example 6.24
Does the set of all 2 × 3 matrices form an algebra of matrices?

Example 6.25
Show that an algebra A of matrices contains a zero matrix.

Example 6.26
 
s t
Show that the collection B of all 2 × 2 matrices of the form is
t s
an algebra of matrices.

Example 6.27
When do matrices A and B commute?

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Example 6.28
   
1 2 5 4
Show that A = and B = commute.
3 4 6 11

Example 6.29
   
x y 1 1
Find all matrices M = that commute with A = .
z t 0 1

Example 6.30
Show that the scalar matrix kIn commutes with any n-square matrix A.

Example 6.31
Show that B [Example 6.26] is a commutative algebra.

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POWER OF MATRICES

The nonnegative integral powers of a square matrix M may be defined

recursively by

M0 = I , M 1 = M, and M r +1 = MM r (r = 1, 2, 3, . . .)

Theorem
(a) Ap Aq = Ap+q

(b) If A and B commute, so do Ap and B q .

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1 2
Examples 6.32-6.35 refer to the matrix A = .
4 −3

Example 6.32
Calculate A2 .

Example 6.33
Calculate A3 .

Example 6.34
Evaluate f (A) for the polynomial f (x) = 2x 2 − 4x + 5.

Example 6.35
Show that A is a zero of the polynomial g (x) = x 2 + 2x − 11.

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2 2
Examples 6.36-6.39 refer to the matrix A = .
3 −1

Example 6.36
Calculate A2 .

Example 6.37
Calculate A3 .

Example 6.38
Find f (A), where f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 2x + 4.

Example 6.39
Find g (A), where g (x) = x 2 − x − 8.

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1 3
Examples 6.40-6.42 refer to the matrix B = .
5 3

Example 6.40
Calculate B 2 .

Example 6.41
Find f (B), where f (x) = 2x 2 − 4x + 3.

Example 6.42
Find g (B), where g (x) = x 2 − 4x − 12.

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1 2
Examples 6.43-6.46 refer to the matrix A = .
0 1

Example 6.43
Calculate A2 .

Example 6.44
Calculate A3 .

Example 6.45
 
1 k
Let Sk = . Show that ASk = Sk A = Sk + 2.
0 1

Example 6.46
Calculate An .

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Definition: Idempotent Matrix

A matrix E is idempotent if E 2 = E .

Example 6.47
Show that the identity matrix I is idempotent.

Example 6.48
Show that any square zero matrix 0 is idempotent.

Example 6.49
Show that  
2 −2 −4
E = −1 3 4
1 −2 −3
is idempotent.

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Example 6.50
Show that if AB = A and BA = B, then A and B are idempotent.

Example 6.51
Show that the product of commutative idempotent matrices is
idempotent.

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Definition: Nilpotent Matrix of Class p for a Positive Integer p

A is nilpotent of class p if Ap = 0 but Ap−1 ̸= 0.

Example 6.52
Show that if A is nilpotent of class p, then Aq = 0 for q > p.

Example 6.53
Show that  
1 1 3
A= 5 2 6
−2 −1 −3
is nilpotent of class 3.

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Definition: Involutory Matrix

A matrix A is involutary if A2 = I , the identity matrix.

Example 6.54
Show that  
4 3 3
A = −1 0 −1
−4 −4 −3
is involutary.

Example 6.55
Establish a connection between the involutory matrices and the
idempotent matrices.

Thus, any involutary matrix is expressible as a difference of idempotent

matrices.

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UNIT SIX Math 151

SQUARE MATRICES AS FUNCTIONS

Let u be a vector in Rn . With u as a column vector, A defines a function

A : Rn → Rn by A(u) = Au.
On the other hand, with u as a row vector, A defines a function
A : Rn → Rn by A(u) = uA.

For Examples 6.56-6.59, let

 
1 −2 3
A = 4 5 −6
2 0 −1

Example 6.56

T
Find A(u), where u = 1 −3 7 .

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Example 6.57


Find A(v ), where v = 2 −5 6 −4 T .

Example 6.58


Find A(w ), where w = 2 −1 4 T.

Example 6.59

T
Find A(u), where u = 3 −7 8 .

Example 6.60
   
1 3 x
Given A = . Find a nonzero column vector u = such that
4 −3 y
Au = 3u.

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Example 6.61
   
1 3 x
Given B = . Find a nonzero column vector u = such that
5 3 y
Bu = 6u.

Example 6.62
 
1 2 −3
Given A = 2 5 −1,
5 12 −5

T
find all vectors u = x y z such that Au = 0.

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UNIT SIX Math 151

INVERTIBLE MATRICES, INVERSES

Definition: Invertible Matrix

A square matrix A is invertible if there exists a square matrix B such that
AB = BA = I , where I is the identity matrix.

Definition: Inverse of an Invertible Matrix

If A is invertible, then the unique matrix B such that AB = BA = I is
called the inverse of A and is denoted by A−1 .

Example 6.63
Show that the inverse relation is symmetric; i.e., (A−1 )−1 = A.

Example 6.64
   
2 5 3 −5
Show that A = and B = are inverses.
1 3 −1 2

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Example 6.65
   
1 0 2 −11 2 2
Show that A = 2 −1 3 and B =  −4 0 1  are inverses.
4 1 8 6 −1 −1

Theorem
If A is symmetric and there exists a matrix B such that AB = I , then A
is invertible, with inverse B.
If AB = I , then B T A = I . But B T = B T (AB) = (B T A)B = B.

Example 6.66
 
a b
When is the general 2 × 2 matrix A = invertible? What then is
c d
its inverse?

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Example 6.67
 
3 5
Find the inverse of A = .
2 3

Example 6.68
 
5 3
Find the inverse of A = .
4 2

Example 6.69
 
2 −3
Find the inverse of B = .
1 3

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Example 6.70
 
−2 6
Try to find the inverse of A = .
3 −9

Example 6.71
 
1 0 2
Find the inverse of A = 2 −1 3 .
4 1 8

Example 6.72
 
1 −2 2
Find the inverse of B = 2 −3 6 .
1 1 7

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Example 6.73
 
1 2 −4
Find the inverse of A = −1 −1 5.
2 7 −3

Example 6.74
 
1 3 −4
Apply the Gaussian algorithm to B = 1 5 −1 .
3 13 −6

Example 6.75
Let A and B be invertible matrices of the same order.
Show that the product AB is also invertible and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

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Example 6.76
Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be p-square invertible matrices.
−1 −1
Show that (A1 A2 . . . An )−1 = A−1 n . . . A2 A1 .

Example 6.77
Show that if A has a zero row, then AB has a zero row.

Example 6.78
Show that if A has a zero row, then A is not invertible.

Example 6.79
Show that if B has a zero column, then AB has a zero column.

Example 6.80
Show that if B has a zero column, then B is not invertible.

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Example 6.81
If A is invertible, show that kA is invertible when k ̸= 0, with inverse
k −1 A−1 .

Example 6.82
Suppose A and B are invertible.
Show, by example, that A + B need not be invertible.

Example 6.83
Show that a diagonal matrix D = diag(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is invertible if and
only if no ai = 0.

Example 6.84
Show that A is invertible if and only if AT is invertible.

Example 6.85
Show that the operations of inversion and transposition commute; that
is, (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .
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ELEMENTARY MATRICES

Definition:Elementary Matrix
Let E be the matrix obtained by applying an elementary row operation
e[Problem 2.79] to the identity matrix I ; that is, let E = e(i).
Then E is called the elementary matrix corresponding to the row
operation e.

Example 6.86
Find the 3-square elementary matrix E1 corresponding to the operation
R 1 ↔ R2

Example 6.87
Find the 3-square elementary matrix E2 corresponding to the operation
R3 → −7R3 .

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Example 6.88
Find the 3-square elementary matrix E3 corresponding to the operation
R2 → −3R1 + R2 .

Example 6.89
Let ei =(0,...,1,...,0) be the row vector with 1 in the ith position and 0
elsewhere.
Show that ei A = Ri , the ith row of A

Theorem
Let e be an elementary row operation and E corresponding m-square
elementary matrix;i.e., E = e(Im ).
Then for any mxn matrix A e(A) = EA.
That is, the result e(A) of applying the operation e on the matrix A can
be obtained by premultiplying A by the corresponding elementary matrix
E

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Example 6.90
Show that A is row equivalent to B if and only if there exist elementary
matrices E1 , ...Es such that Es ...E2 E1 A = B.

Example 6.91
Show that the elementary matrices are invertible and that their inverses
are also elementary matrices.

Theorem
The following are equivalent:
a)A is invertible;
b) A is row equivalent to the identity matrix I ;
c) A is product of elementary matrices.

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Example 6.92
Let A and B be square matrices of the same order.
Show that if AB = I , then B = A−1 .
Accordingly AB = I if and only if BA = I

Example 6.93
Suppose A is the invertible and, say, it is row reducible to the identity
matrix I by the sequence of elementary operations e1 , ..., en .
Show that this sequence of elementary row operations applied to I yields
A−1 .

Example 6.94
Show that B is row equivalent to A if and only if there exists an
invertible matrix P such that B = PA.

Example 6.95
Show that if AB is invertible, A is invertible.
Thus, if A has no inverse, AB has no inverse.
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COLUMN OPERATIONS,MATRIX EQUIVALENCE

Elementary Column Operations
[F1 ] Interchange the ith and the jth column: Ci ↔ Cj .
[F2 ] Multiply the ith column by a nonzero scalar :kCi → kCi (k ̸= 0).
[F3 ] Replace the ith column by k times the jth column plus the ith
column : Cc i → kCj +Ci .

Example 6.96
Find the inverse of [F1 ] in System above.

Example 6.97
Find the inverse of [F2 ] in System above.

Example 6.98
Find the inverse of [F3 ] in System above.
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Example 6.99
Find the 3-square elementary matrix F1 corresponding to the column
operation C1 ↔ C2 .

Example 6.100
Find the 3-square elementary matrix F2 corresponding to the column
operation C2 → −5C2 .

Example 6.101
Find the 3-square elementary matrix F3 corresponding to the column
operation C2 → −4C1 +C2

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Example 6.102
Show that f (A) = [e(AT )]T ; that is applying the column operation f to
a matrix A gives the same result as applying the corresponding row
operation e to AT and then taking the transpose.

Example 6.103
Show that F is the transpose of E .

Example 6.104
Under what conditions is B column equivalent to A?

Example 6.105
Show that B is column equivalent to A if and only if there exists an
invertible matrix Q such that B = AQ.

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Example 6.106
When is B equivalent to A?

Example 6.107
Show that B is equivalent to A if and only if there exists an invertible
matrices P and Q such that B = PAQ.

Theorem
An m x n matrix A is equivalent to a block matrix
 
Ir 0
0 0
[The nonnegative integer r is called the rank of A.]

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UNIT SIX Math 151

UPPER TRIANGULAR AND OTHER SPECIAL

MATRICES

Definition(Upper Triangular Matrix)

A square matrix A = (aij ) is upper triangular if all entries below the main
diagonal are equal to zero; that is, if aij = 0 for i > j.

Example 6.108
Display the generic upper triangular matrices of orders 2,3, and 4.

Examples 6.109 -6.113 refer to n-square upper triangular matrices

A = (aij) and B = (bij ).

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Example 6.109
Show that A + B is upper triangular, with diagonal
[a11 + b11 , a22 + b22 , .., ann + bnn ].

Example 6.110
Show that kA is upper triangular, with diagonal [ka11 , ka22 , ..., kann ].

Example 6.111
Show that the product AB is upper triangular.

Example 6.112
Show that the diagonal entries of AB are a11 b11 , a22 b22 , .., ann bnn .

Example 6.113
p p
Show that the diagonal entries of Ap and a11 ,a22 p
...,ann

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Example 6.114
Show that, for any polynomial f (x), the diagonal entries of f (A) are
f (a11 ), f (a22 ),..,f (ann )

Example 6.115
Show that the collection T n of n-square upper triangular matrices form
an algebra of matrices.

Example 6.116
Show by example that the algebra T 2 of 2-square upper triangular
matrices is not commutative.

Theorem
If A is an n–square upper triangular matrix with a zero on its diagonal,
the A is not invertible.

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Examples 6.117-6.121 are true/false [Link] false,give a counter

example.
Example 6.117
Using only elements 0 and 1, find
(a) all 2 x 2 diagonal matrices,
(b) all 2 x 2 upper triangular matrices.

Example 6.118
Are all square echelon matrices upper triangular matrices?

Example 6.119
Are all upper triangular matrices in echelon form?

Example 6.120
If A2 is an upper triangular matrix, then A is also upper triangular.

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Example 6.121
Find an upper triangular A such that

 
8 −57
A3 =
0 27

Definition: Lower Triangular Matrix

A square matrix A = (aij ) is lower triangular if all entries above the main
diagonal are equal to zero; that is, if aij = 0 for i < j.

Example 6.122
Exhibit the generic lower triangular matrices of orders 2,3, and 4.

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Example 6.123
A is a lower triangular if and only if AT is upper triangular: True or False?

Example 6.124
With reference to Example 6, verify that the product of lower diagonal
matrices is lower diagonal.

Example 6.125
What kinds of matrices are both upper triangular and lower triangular?

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Definition(tridiagonal matrix)
A square matrix is tridiagonal if the nonzero entries occur only on the
diaonal, directly above the diagonal [on the superdiagonal], or directly
below the diagonal [on the subdiagonal].

Example 6.126
Display the generic tridiagonal matrices of orders 4 and 5.

Example 6.127
Show that the product of tridiagonal matrices need not be tridiagonal.

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SYMMETRIC MATRICES

Definition : Symmetric Matrix

A real matrix A is symmetric if AT = A.
Equivalently, A = (aij ) is symmetric if each aij = aji .
Note that A must be square in order for AT = A.

Definition : Skew-symmetric (or antisymmetric) matrix

A real matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT = −A.
Equivalently, A = (aij ) is skew-symmetric if each aij = −aji

Example 6.128
Show that the diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix must be
zero.

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Example 6.129-4.6.135 involve the following matrices:

   
0 5 −2 4 −7 1  
1 1 1
A = −5 0 3 B = −7 3 2 C=
1 1 1
2 −3 0 1 2 −5
       
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
D= E= F= G=
1 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0

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Example 6.129
Is A symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.130
Is B symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.131
Is C symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.132
Is D symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.133
Is E symmetric or skew-symmetric?

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Example 6.134
Is F symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.135
Is G symmetric or skew-symmetric?

Example 6.136
Is the identity matrix I symmetric?

Example 6.137
Is every 0 matrix symmetric?

Example 6.138
Find x and A, if  
4 x+2
A=
2x−3 x+1
is symmetric
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Example 6.139
Find x, y , z, t, if  
5 2 x
B = y z −3
4 t −7
is symmetric.

Example 6.140
Suppose A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are symmetric.
Show that A + B is symmetric.

Example 6.141
Suppose A = (aij ) is symmetric. Show that kA is symmetric

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Example 6.142
Show that AB need not be symmetric, even though A and B are
symmetric.

Example 6.143
Let A and B be symmetric matrices. Show that AB is symmetric if and
only if A and B commute.

Example 6.144
Suppose A = (aij ) is skew-symmetric. Show that kA is skew-symmetric.

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Theorem
If A is a square matrix, then
(i) A + AT is symmetric;
(ii). A − AT is skew-symmetric;
(iii) A = B + C , for some symmetric matrix B and some skew-symmetric
matrix C

Example 6.145
Write  
2 3
A=
7 8
as the sum of a symmetric matrix B and a skew-symmetric matrix C .

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Example 6.146
Show that A is symmetric if and only if AT is symmetric.

Example 6.147
Suppose A is symmetric. Show that A2 and, in general, An is symmetric.

Example 6.148
Show that if A is symmetric, then f (A) is symmetric for any polynomial
f (x).

Example 6.149
Let A be an n-square symmetric matrix and P any n x m matrix. Show
that P T AP is also symmetric.

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COMPLEX MATRICES

This section assumes that the scalars and, in particular, the entries in the
matrices are complex numbers.

Definition (complex) conjugate of a matrix A, denoted Ā)

If A = (aij ), then Ā ≡ (a¯ij )

Example 6.150
Find the conjugate of
 
2+i 3 − 5i 4 + 8i
6−i 2 − 9i 5 + 6i

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Example 6.151
Find the conjugate of  
6 + 7i 5i
9 4−i

Example 6.152
When does Ā = A?

Example 6.153
Find Ā, if  
3 7 −5
A=
6 −2 8

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Theorem
(i) A + B = A + B

(ii) kA = k · A

(iii) A = A

(iv) AB = A · B
T
(v) (A) = AT

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Example 6.154
The conjugate transpose [=transposed conjugate] of a matrix A is
indicated as AH [after the mathematician Hermite]. Find AH if
 
2 + 8i 5 − 3i 4 − 7i
A=
6i 1 − 4i 3 + 2i

Example 6.155
When will AH = AT ?

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Theorem
(A + B)H = AH + B H

(AH )H = A

(kA)H = kAH

(AB)H = B H AH

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HERMITIAN MATRICES

Definition (a) Hermitian Matrix, (b) Skew-Hermitian Matrix.

(a) A complex matrix A is Hermitian if AH = A; equivalently, A = (aij ) is
Hermitian if each aij = āji .
Note that only square matrices can be Hermitian.
(b) A complex matrix A is skew-Hermitian if AH = −A; equivalently,
A = (aij ) is skew-Hermitian if each aij = −āji .

Example 6.156
Show that the diagonal elements of a Hermitian [skew-Hermitian] matrix
are real [pure imaginary].

Example 6.157
Show that if A is Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian, then A = 0

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Problem 6.158- 6.163 involve the following matrices:

   
4 3 − 5i 4i 3 + 2i
A= B=
3 + 5i −7 −3 + 2i −7i
 
  3 1 − 2i 4 + 7i
0 5 − 7i
C= D = 1 + 2i −4 −2i 
4 + 3i 0
4 − 7i 2i 2
   
5i −4 + i 3 − 2i 6 7 −2
E = 4+i 2i −2 + i  F = 7 −1 8
−3 − 2i 2+i −6i −2 8 −3

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Example 6.158
Is A Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.159
Is B Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.160
Is C Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.161
Is D Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.162
Is E Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.163
Is F Hermitian or skew-Hermitian?
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UNIT SIX Math 151

Example 6.164
Is G = diag [5, 2i, −3, 4 + i] Hermitian or Skew-Hermitian?

Example 6.165
If A and B are Hermitian, show that kA is Hermitian.

Example 6.166
Suppose A Hermitian and k real. Show that A + B is Hermitian.

Example 6.167
Suppose A skew-Hermitian and k real. Show that kA is skew-Hermitian.

Example 6.168
If A is an arbitrary complex matrix, show that the matrices AAH and
AH A are Hermitian.

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Example 6.169
When do two Hermitian matrices have a Hermitian product?

Example 6.170
Show that if A is Hermitian, so is Ap (p = 2, 3, ...).

Theorem
If A is a square matrix, then
(i)A + AH is Hermitian;
(ii)A − AH is skew-Hermitian ;
(iii)A = B + C , where B is Hermitian and C is skew-Hermitian.

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Example 6.171
Write  
2 + 6i 5 + 3i
A=
9−i 4 − 2i
in the form A = B + C where B is Hermitian and C is skew-Hermitian.

Example 6.172
Suppose A is an n-square Hermitian matrix.
Show that P H AP is Hermitian fro any n x m matrix P.

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UNIT SIX Math 151

ORTHOGONAL MATRICES

Definition : Orthogonal Matrix

A real matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AAT = AT A = I .
Observe that an orthogonal matrix A is necessarily square and invertible,
with inverse A−1 = AT .

Example 6.173
Show that
−4
1 8

9 9 9
 
−4 −7 
4 
A=
9 9 9 
 
8 1 4
9 9 9

is orthogonal.

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Definition: Orthogonal Set of Vectors in Rn

The vectors u1 , u2 , . . . , ur form an orthogonal set if the vectors are
pairwise orthogonal [ui · uj = 0 for i ̸= j] and if the vectors have unit
lengths [ui · ui = 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . , r ].
In terms of the Kronecker delta, the condition for orthogonality is
ui · uj = δij .

Example 6.174
Show that  
a1 a2 a3
A = b1 b2 b3 
c1 c2 c3
is orthogonal if and only if its rows u1 = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), u2 = (b1 , b2 , b3 ),
u3 = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) form an orthonormal set.

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Example 6.175
Show that A is orthogonal iff AT is orthogonal.

Theorem
Let A be a real matrix. Then the following are equivalent :
(a)A is orthogonal ;
(b) The rows of A form an orthonormal set ;
(c) The columns of A form an orthonormal set.

Example 6.176
If
√1 √2
 
A= 5 5
x y
is orthogonal, find x and y

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Example 6.177
If
2 2
 
x 3 3
A =  32 1
3 y
z s t
is orthogonal, find x, y , z, s, t.

Example 6.178
If A is orthogonal, show that A−1 is orthogonal.

Example 6.179
Suppose A and B are n-square orthogonal matrices.
Show that AB is an [n-square] orthogonal matrix.

Example 6.180
Exhibit the most general 2 x 2 orthogonal matrix.

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UNIT SIX Math 151

UNITARY MATRICES

Definition : Unitary Matrix

A complex matrix A is said to be unitary if AAH = AH A = I .
Observe that a unitary matrix is necessarily square and invertible.

Example 6.181
Show that the following matrix is unitary
 
1 i −1 + i
1
A=  i 1 1+i 
2
1 + i −1 + i 0

Example 6.182
Show that A is unitary if and only if AH is unitary.

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Example 6.183
Define an orthonormal set of vectors in Cn .

Example 6.184
Show that u.v = u.v in Cn

Theorem
Let A be a complex matrix. Then the following are equivalent:
(a)A is unitary ;
(b)the rows of A form an orthonormal set ;
(c)the columns of A form an orthonormal set.

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Example 6.185
Show that 1
− 23 i 2

A= 3 3i
− 23 i − 13 − 32 i
is unitary.

Example 6.186
If A is unitary, show that A−1 is unitary.

Example 6.187
Show that the product AB of unitary matrices A and B is also unitary.

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UNIT SIX Math 151

NORMAL MATRICES

Definition : Normal Matrix

Matrix A is normal if A is real and AAT = AT A, or if A is complex and
AAH = AH A.
Thus, real matrices that are symmetric or orthogonal, and complex
matrices that are Hermitian or unitary, are all special cases of normal
matrices.
Problem 6.188-6.191 refer to the following matrices:
   
6 −3 2 5
A= B=
3 6  3 −1 
2 + 3i 1 1 i
C= D=
i 1 + 2i 1+i 0

Example 6.188
Is A normal?

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Example 6.189
Is B normal?

Example 6.190
Is C normal?

Example 6.191
Is D normal?

Example 6.192
Show that a [real] skew-symmetric matrix A is normal.

Example 6.193
Show that a [complex] skew-Hermitian matrix A is normal.

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Example 6.194
Exhibit a real matrix that is normal but is not symmetric,
skew-symmetric, or orthogonal.

Example 6.195
Show that the sum of a real scalar matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix is
normal; that is,show that B = kl + A is normal whenever A is
skew-symmetric.

Theorem
A real 2 x 2 normal matrix is either symmetric or the sum of a scalar
matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix.

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