Examining the role of technology in enhancing educational access and quality education in
urban versus rural schools.
CHAPTER 1: Problem Articulation
Introduction to the Study
The emergence of technology has made the world into a global village and has transformed
teaching and learning processes. Technology integration into classroom instruction has gained
much ground in both developed and developing countries. The concept of technology
integration is now viewed as a fundamental part of successful teaching and has gained the
interest of many researchers who investigated and explored effective ways of integrating
technology into the school curriculum (Anderson and Maninger, 2007; Wood and Ashfield,
2008). Almekhlafi and Almeqdadi (2010) identified one overarching goal of technology
integration: a school’s ability to have a global learning environment with effective and
appropriate use of technology in the classroom. However, the high cost of acquiring technology
is still a major challenge in many developing countries, and its adoption is not expanding as
quickly as expected.
Many schools still have constraints on the effective use of technology in the classroom (Lim,
Zhao, Tondeur, Chai, & Tsai, 2013). A digital divide exists between urban, semiurban, and rural
schools as a result of varied challenges the rural communities experience (Akanbi & Akanbi,
2012). Through a series of technology interventions for rural communities, many rural schools
now have access to technology, but the usage is minimal due to other enormous challenges,
such as lack of basic supportive infrastructures. Levin and Wadmany (2008) noted that
educators are yet to effectively integrate educational technologies into classrooms. Identifying
the barriers and challenges in rural schools may assist in providing holistic technology
interventions that would be highly effective in the learning environment.
The purpose of this study was to determine the role of technology interventions in enhancing
educational access and quality education in urban versus rural schools. Researchers have
carried out many studies to determine factors affecting technology adoption, use of technology
in the classroom, teachers’ attitudes toward technology usage, and impact of technology on
student achievement (Inan & Lowther, 2010; Levin & Wadmany, 2008; Lim et al., 2013; Straub,
2009; Thieman, 2008). With the keen interest in technology usage to enhance teaching and
learning process, especially with the deployment of low-cost technology solutions, researchers
have yet to determine the impact of technology interventions on students’ achievement amidst
the other challenges faced by rural schools in developing countries.
The quantity of technology does not impact students academically, but effective teaching
practices in conjunction with quality technology usage can improve student achievement (Lei,
2010). The design of this study was to help define the outcomes of integrating technology into
classroom instruction and determine if the deployed technology solutions meet the needs of
learners and educators.
Background
Computer education started to be introduced in Zimbabwe's schools in the latter half of the
1980s, with a more formal push for its inclusion beginning with the 1999 Nziramasanga
Commission, which recommended the use of computers in teaching. Subsequent government
policies, such as the national ICT policy in 2005, solidified and expanded this effort by
promoting ICT in education. Around 2005, the Zimbabwean government enacted a policy on
computer education, recognizing the role and integration of information and communication
technology (ICT) in education (Adomi Kpanghan, 2010). As a follow-up to this policy, computer
systems were deployed to some schools. To harness and support the government initiative,
many private and public organizations, through their corporate social initiatives, deployed
various technology interventions into schools across the country.
However, the low level of basic infrastructures in some schools did not allow the interventions
to manifest as expected. Technology integration in the classroom is not reliant upon technology
tools or interventions but upon how technology can have a meaningful impact on student
[Link] improved access to technology in schools, little research exists on the
level of usage in rural schools, especially in developing countries. The ability of teachers to
integrate technology activities to meet students’ needs is important, not just having teachers
teach only technology skills (Gorder, 2008). However, many teachers find the change process of
innovation daunting and laborious. Considering their current teaching schedules, integrating
technology into class instruction can be a herculean task (Cifuentes, Maxwell, & Bulu, 2011;
Joshi, Pan, Murakami, & Narayanan, 2010; Wachira & Keengwe, 2011).
Studies have shown teachers’ enthusiasm and positive experiences with using technology but
additionally point out the many barriers to effectiveness (Almekhlafi & Almeqdadi, 2010; Levin
& Wadmany, 2008; Wachira & Keengwe, 2011; Winzeried, Dalgrano, & Tinkler, 2011; Zhao,
2007). Past related research has focused on urban schools in developed countries (Joshi et al.,
2010; Wachira & Keengwe, 2011), thus creating a gap in generalizing these identified factors
across localities. Although Cakir, Delialioglu, Dennis, and Duffy (2009) argued that, given
adequate technology facilities, the locality of a school does not affect the impact of technology
on student achievement, few studies have explored how teachers in rural schools integrate
technology compared to their contemporaries in urban schools (Marwan & Sweeney, 2010).
One might have to consider the peculiarities of the rural environment, as well as varied and
unique challenges faced by rural schools, and that technology interventions that have been
successful in urban schools might be a failure in rural [Link] of the literature reviewed
suggested varied factors that contribute to the success of technology integration. However,
there was no clear study that ascertained if the factors were the same, irrespective of the
locale.
The need exists for examining the impact of technology interventions on student achievement
in developing countries’ rural communities and establishing differences in student achievement
in a technology-enabled and nontechnology-enabled school within the same community. This
study was designed to ascertain the technology interventions that have met the needs of
teachers and had an impact on student achievement, thereby making them competitive with
their counterparts in urban areas. In addition, it established how the teachers in this study
ascribed meaning to technology differently than in prior research studies as a result of the
peculiarities of their [Link] StatementZimbabwe, being a developing country, faces
the challenges of access to technology-rich education. The Federal Ministry of Education (FME),
Universal Service Provision Fund (USPF) and several private organizations have assisted many
schools by providing various technology solutions, such as supplying personal computers,
setting up computer laboratories and other facilities inclusive of Internet connection, as well as
interactive whiteboards (IWBs) and projectors (SchoolNet, 2005; USPF, 2010).
However, there have been no means in place to ascertain the impact of technologies on
student achievement, especially in rural schools in Zimbabwe that also faced the lack of
electricity, adequate funding, and basic infrastructures, among other challenges. Many research
studies on technology integration into classroom instruction have shown that there can be a
significant, positive impact on student achievement (Cakir et al., 2009; Inan & Lowther, 2010;
Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, & Schmid, 2011). However, most of the research studies
did not focus on rural schools, especially in developing countries. There is a need to move
beyond assessment of participants’ perceptions and focus on actual student achievement in
technology integration efforts (Smolin & Lawless, 2011). A rigorous evaluation that can provide
information with which to make decisions and guide the deployment of various interventions is
important. This research fills a gap by providing information on the impact of the various
educational technology interventions on student achievement in rural Nigerian schools (Smolin
& Lawless, 2011; Tamim et al., 2011).
Purpose Statement
The intent of this quantitative study was to determine the impact of the technology
interventions that were deployed to urban and rural schools on student achievement in
Zimbabwe. It helped determine if the holistic technology solutions met teachers’ needs as well
as had a meaningful impact on learners. In this study, the test was based on whether or not the
use of technology, the independent variable, had an impact on the subjects within the Heritage
based curriculum. Further tests were based on teachers’ level of technology usage as related to
student achievement to determine the relationship between the level of technology
implementation, the independent variable, and student achievement in Heritage based
subjects. Technology initiatives such as one-to-one laptops and IWBs, among other technology
initiatives have had a positive impact on student achievement in mathematics and English
(Hossain & Quinn, 2013; Suleman, Aslam, Habib, & Hussain, 2013; Thomson & Davis, 2013). This
study could lead to a positive social change in rural schools by increasing the level of awareness
of the potential impact of various technology initiatives on student academic achievement.
Purpose / Aim of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of technology interventions in enhancing
educational access and quality education with a focus on a rural and urban school settings.
Research Objectives
To assess the current availability and use of educational technology in urban and rural schools.
To evaluate the impact of ICT on student engagement, learning outcomes, and access to
educational resources in both urban and rural settings.
To identify key challenges and enabling factors for effective technology integration in urban and
rural contexts.
To provide recommendations for policies and strategies to ensure equitable and effective
technology use in all schools.
Research Questions / Hypotheses
How the accessibility of technology affects the learning progress of students in rural and urban
schools?
Is there a difference in student achievement in Heritage based Curriculum between technology-
enabled and nontechnology-enabled schools with regards to rural versus urban schools?
Significance of the Study
Keep Pace with Globalisation
Accessibility of technology in schools, both rural and urban schools is crucial, as the
Zimbabwean Ministry of Education believes that the integration of ICT in teaching and learning
is essential for the country's progress towards becoming a high-income nation (Ministry of
Education 2022). Globalization and rapid technological advancements have led to a borderless
world, the liberalization of global information, and global learning. Moreover, ICT skills are one
of the essential criteria in 21st-century education (Hrehová and Teplická, 2020). Thus, ensuring
the accessibility of ICT in rural and urban schools is a vital issue to be addressed, enabling rural
students to keep pace with the demands of [Link] proponents of globalization claim
that it is beneficial for global economic development and improving the standard of living in
less affluent nations (Stiglitz 2002; Ohmae 2005).
This aligns with the Ministry of Education's aim of extensively incorporating ICT in Zimbabwean
schools. Conversely, the National Education Policy Act 27 of 1996 in South Africa emphasizes
the concept of educational equity, which aims to make education accessible to all, including the
poor and previously disadvantaged individuals, so that they can fully participate in society. The
implementation of 'Curriculum 2005' and Outcomes-Based Education in South Africa is a result
of the impact of globalization and the growing importance of information technology
education. The new Zimbabwean Heritage based curriculum has introduced various learning
areas, such as technology, economic and management sciences, and life orientation, designed
to equip learners with skills that will enable them to become productive members of a thriving,
diverse, and dynamic economy.
Furthermore, the HBC curriculum aims to ensure the accessibility of ICT in both rural and urban
schools, shaping students to become skilled citizens with the necessary assets to participate in
the new knowledge-based global economy. (Dzansi&Amedzo, 2014) The curriculum's
integration of technology exposes learners to global information and the means for global
communication, enabling them to become active global players. Therefore, the South African
curriculum can serve as a benchmark to evaluate and analyze the Malaysian curriculum's
progress towards meeting the demands of globalization, as both countries are classified as
developing nations.
Independent Learning
Independent learning falls in the concept of constructivist learning theory and this theory is
based around the idea that people actively construct understanding or knowledge (Council for
Educational Change 2004). Independent learning requires the learner to be less teacher
dependent. Hence, integration of ICT in rural schools able to encourage pupils to be active
learners consequently could realise New economic policy (2009) in which the main policy
thrusts were the eradication of poverty particularly in the rural areas of the country. In this
context education was viewed as playing an important role in the long run, in achieving the
thrust. However, to achieve the thrust education needs to be equitable.
According to a case study entitled “Zimbabwean Teachers’ Levels Of ICT Integration And Its
Perceived Impact On Teaching And Learning “conducted by a University student in Zimbabwe in
2015, the researchers have found out that 58.10% of teachers agreed that students exhibit high
level of independence while using computers during teaching and learning session in classroom.
The respondents for the case study were teachers throughout Zimbabwe. Furthermore, 84.1%
of the respondents agree that ICT promotes collaborative learning among their students and
81.7% agree that their students often share information from multiple sources. The use of ICT
in teaching and learning especially with the use of interactive multimedia will assist in
understanding and improve retention among the students, as learning through multimedia
involves multiple intelligence such as auditory and visual (Muzarabani 2013). Such approach
encourages students to work together and share ideas collaboratively to achieve common
learning goal.