CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
3
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
I.1 Introduction
In recent years, renewable energies have begun to play a significant role in electrical energy.
Among these emerging sources, photovoltaic (PV) solar energy stands out as a promising
example of the energy of the future. It is now being widely used around the world. PV solar
energy is an unlimited resource abundant, freely available, silent, and environmentally
friendly. It converts solar radiation into useful electrical energy using PV solar cells [1, 2].
In this chapter, we will explain the energy conversion system process carried out by PV cells
and provide general information on the history of photovoltaic technology. We will then
present the different types of PV systems. Next, we will model the key components of a
standalone PV system, such as the PV generator and the step-up boost converter. Simulation
results of PV system in various temperature and radiation, finally, we will discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic energy system [2].
I.2 Definition of Photovoltaic Solar
Solar energy is one of the emerging sources of renewable energy. It refers to the energy
harnessed by solar panels and converted into electricity. PV electricity is generated using
technology that transforms solar energy (photons) into electrical energy. This conversion is
carried out through PV cells, which are most often arranged in PV panels [3]. See figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Principe of photovoltaic Solar Energy
4
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
I.3 History of PV system
The history of photovoltaic (PV) technology has seen several important milestones. The key
dates are highlighted below:
In 1839 Discovery of the Photovoltaic Effect: French physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel
discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with an electrolytic cell.
In 1873 Photo-conductivity of Selenium: Willoughby Smith discovered the photo-conductive
properties of selenium, a key step in PV development.
In 1883 First Selenium Solar Cell: Charles Fritts built the first true solar cell using a thin layer
of gold on selenium, achieving an efficiency of about 1%.
In 1954Modern Silicon Solar Cell: Researchers Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson at Bell Labs
developed the first practical silicon solar cell with an efficiency of 6%.
In 1958First Use in Space: The Vanguard 1 satellite became the first to use solar cells in
space, proving their reliability for powering spacecraft.
In 1973 First PV-Powered Building: The University of Delaware built “Solar One,” one of the
first buildings to be powered by solar PV.
In 1980s – Commercialization and Grid Connection: PV began to be used more widely in off-
grid and remote applications, and early efforts toward grid-tied systems started.
In 2000s Expansion and Cost Reduction: Rapid advancements in manufacturing and
government incentives led to increased production and significant cost reductions.
In 2010s at Present Global Adoption and Innovation: PV technology has become a major
component of global energy strategies, with innovations like bifacial panels, perovskite cells,
and floating solar farms [4].
I.4 Photovoltaic system
The term photovoltaic comes from Greek and means "light." It is composed of two parts:
“photos” (meaning light) and the name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who
invented the electric battery in 1800 and gave his name to the unit of electric potential—the
volt.
In 1839, Edmond Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of a relationship between sunlight
and certain minerals. When these metals were exposed to light, electrical energy was
generated. However, this discovery did not find an immediate explanation at the time. Later,
Albert Einstein demonstrated that sunlight is made up of photons, which carry electrical
5
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
energy when they interact with matter under certain conditions. The energy of a photon is
given by the following equation [4]:
E=h ∙ f (1.1)
Where:
E : is the energy of the photon,
h : is Planck’s constant,
f : is the frequency of the photon.
The photovoltaic (PV) effect refers to the direct conversion of solar radiation energy into
electrical energy using cells, typically made of silicon. To generate a sufficient amount of
power, individual cells are interconnected to form a solar module.
I.5 PV Cell
The PV cell, also known as a solar cell, is the smallest functional unit in a photovoltaic
system. It is made of semiconductor materials and directly converts light energy into electrical
energy. PV cells are composed of the following elements:
A thin semiconductor layer (a material with a band gap that acts as an energy barrier which
electrons cannot cross without external excitation, and whose electronic properties can be
modified). The most commonly used material is silicon, which has relatively good electrical
conductivity.
The most recent generations of PV cells include new multilayer reflective structures beneath
the semiconductor. These layers allow light to bounce within the material for a longer
duration, thereby increasing the efficiency of the energy conversion process.
6
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
Figure I.2 Basic Structure of a Solar Cell
A PV cell is based on the physical phenomenon known as the photovoltaic effect, which
generates an electromotive force (Fem) when the surface of the cell is exposed to light. The
voltage generated can vary between 0.3 V and 0.7 V, depending on the material used, its
arrangement, as well as factors such as temperature and the aging of the cell [5] .
I.6 Types of Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic systems are classified into three types based on their requirements:
I.6.1. Standalone System
A photovoltaic system is considered autonomous or isolated when it is not connected to the
grid. The standalone PV system is designed to supply electrical power to locations where
there is no grid connection. The energy produced is either used immediately or stored in
batteries for later use. In such applications, it is not always feasible to set up a conventional
power supply network, either due to technical constraints or economic reasons. The
performance of standalone systems heavily depends on the condition and quality of the
batteries, as they are a fundamental component in these types of systems [6].
Figure I.3 Standalone PV Systems
7
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
I.6.2. Grid-connected PV System
A photovoltaic (PV) system can be connected in parallel with the electricity grid. The solar
panels are connected in series to form strings, which are then linked to an inverter. The role of
the inverter is to convert the direct current (DC) generated by the solar panels into alternative
current (AC). Each inverter is selected based on the power rating of the panels and can
accommodate one or more strings [7].
If the local consumption exceeds the PV system's production, the grid supplies the additional
electricity. On the other hand, if the PV system generates more electricity than is needed
locally, the excess energy is supplied to the public grid, where it can be used by other
consumers connected to the network.
In grid-connected systems, the inverter takes the place of batteries. It is therefore the key
component in these types of systems [8] .
Figure I.4 Grid-connected PV System
I.6.3. Hybrid System
Hybrid systems receive part of their energy from one or more additional sources that are also
independent of electricity distribution networks. In practice, the photovoltaic generator is
combined with a wind turbine or a fuel-powered generator, or both, along with energy storage
accumulators. Such a system is designed for applications that require continuous power
supply at relatively high capacity [6-10].
A photovoltaic hybrid system optimizes the combined use of multiple renewable and/or fossil
energy sources, along with associated storage solutions, to ensure reliable and efficient energy
supply.
8
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
Figure I.5 Hybrid Photovoltaic System
I.7 Standalone Photovoltaic Systems
The standalone PV energy production system is an autonomous solar power generation setup.
It consists of a PV generator, made up of one or more modules connected in series or parallel,
and a DC-DC power converter controlled by an algorithm that enables Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) [11, 12].
The system also includes a DC load that directly uses the energy generated. Figure I.6 shows
the block diagram of the standalone PV system.
Figure I.6 Block Diagram of the Standalone PV System
9
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
In this chapter, we present the modeling of a standalone photovoltaic system, consisting of a
photovoltaic generator and a boost converter. However, the MPPT control technique will be
examined in detail in the following chapter
I.7.1. Photovoltaic Generator
Solar cells are typically connected in series and parallel configurations, and then encapsulated
under glass to form a PV module. A photovoltaic generator composed of multiple
interconnected modules that form a unit capable of producing high continuous power, suitable
for standard electrical equipment [13, 14].
PV modules are usually connected in series-parallel combinations to increase both the voltage
and current at the output of the PV generator. The interconnected modules are mounted on
metal supports, tilted at a desired angle depending on the location. This entire setup is
commonly referred to as a PV module array or PV field. Figure I.7 illustrates the equivalent
circuit of a PV cell. This model includes a current source and a diode in parallel, as well as a
series resistance (Rs) and a parallel (shunt) resistance (Rsh) to account for energy losses and
dissipative effects within the cell.
Figure I.7 Equivalent Circuit of a Photovoltaic Cell
The series resistance (Rs) represents the internal resistance of the PV cell. It primarily
depends on the resistance of the semiconductor material, the contact resistance of the collector
grid, and the resistivity of the metallic grid lines.
The shunt resistance (Rsh) accounts for effects such as leakage currents around the edges of
the cell. This resistance is typically reduced due to the penetration of metallic impurities into
the PN junction, especially when this penetration is deep. Low shunt resistance leads to higher
losses and reduced efficiency of the PV cell.
10
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
This circuit model of cell PV system can be used not only for a single PV cell, but also for a
module or a panel composed of multiple interconnected modules.
The equation that relates the output current of a PV module composed of Ns cells connected
in series to the voltage at its terminals is given by:
( )
q (V + I Rs )
V + I Rs
I =I ph−I 0 e nKT
−1 − (I.2)
R sh
Where:
I: Output current of the module
V: Output voltage across the module
Iph: Photocurrent (depends on irradiance and temperature)
I0: Diode reverse saturation current
q: Electron charge (1.602 × 10 ⁻¹⁹ C)
n: Diode ideality factor
k: Boltzmann constant (1.381 × 10⁻²³ J/K)
T: Temperature in Kelvin
Rs: Series resistance
Rsh: Shunt resistance
Ns: Number of series-connected cells in the module
I.7.2. Boost Converter
Choppers, or DC-DC converters, are devices that allow control of electrical power in DC
circuits with high flexibility and excellent efficiency. A chopper typically consists of
capacitors, inductors, and switching devices. In the ideal case, these components do not
consume active power, which is why boost converters generally achieve high efficiency [15,
16].
The boost converter is a parallel DC-DC converter inserted between the PV generator and the
rest of the power conversion chain. Its basic electrical circuit is shown in Figure I.8. A typical
application of the boost converter is to increase the input voltage to a higher output voltage.
It is characterized by its duty cycle d, where is limited between, 0<d<1, which defines the
relationship between the average output and input values. In steady-state analysis of a boost
converter, the system of equations is given by :
11
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
V¿
V out = (I.3)
1−d
Where:
Vin: Input voltage (from the PV generator)
Vout: Output voltage (to the load or inverter)
d: Duty cycle of the switching signal
Figure I.8 Electrical Diagram of the Boost Converter
This boost converter is essential in MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) applications, as
it enables the system to adjust the operating point of the PV generator to extract maximum
power under varying irradiance and temperature conditions.
I.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of a PV sytem
I.8.1. Advantages
One of the key strengths of photovoltaic (PV) systems is their high reliability. These systems
have no moving parts, which minimizes mechanical failure and reduces maintenance needs.
This reliability makes them ideal for use in remote or isolated areas where regular servicing
may not be practical. Their proven dependability is also a primary reason for their use in
space missions and satellites [17,18].
Another significant advantage of PV systems is their modularity. Photovoltaic panels can be
installed individually or in groups, allowing systems to be tailored to meet specific energy
requirements—from small-scale household needs to large industrial applications. This
scalability supports both incremental deployment and large centralized installations.
PV systems also benefit from very low operating costs. Since they do not rely on fuel, there is
no need for fuel procurement, transportation, or storage. Furthermore, they require minimal
12
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
technical intervention, reducing the need for highly specialized personnel or ongoing
maintenance.
In terms of environmental impact, solar energy is one of the cleanest sources available. PV
systems generate electricity without producing noise, greenhouse gases, or harmful emissions.
The only environmental consideration is land use, which becomes more significant in large-
scale ground-mounted installations.
Photovoltaic technology is also well-suited for urban settings. Due to their compact size and
quiet operation, solar panels can be installed on rooftops, building facades, or small open
areas without disrupting the surrounding environment or creating noise pollution. This makes
them an attractive option for densely populated regions.
Furthermore, solar energy is available almost everywhere on Earth, making PV systems
accessible on a global scale. This widespread availability supports the use of solar power in
both developed and developing regions, regardless of existing infrastructure.
Lastly, PV systems offer the advantage of localized energy production. Since the energy can
be generated near the point of consumption, transmission losses that are common in
centralized power grids can be significantly reduced or avoided altogether. This improves
overall system efficiency and reduces dependency on extensive power distribution networks.
I.8.2. Disadvantages
One of the primary limitations of photovoltaic (PV) systems is the high manufacturing cost.
The production process for solar modules relies on sophisticated technologies and materials,
which require substantial financial investment. As a result, the initial cost of deploying a PV
system can be significantly higher than conventional alternatives [17, 18].
Another major challenge lies in the area of energy storage. When solar-generated electricity
must be stored for later use commonly in chemical batteries the overall cost of the system
increases considerably. This is further complicated by ongoing issues in battery technology,
particularly concerning their high prices, limited lifespans, and maintenance requirements.
In terms of energy efficiency, PV modules generally operate at relatively modest conversion
rates. Under real-world conditions, most commercial modules convert only 10% to 15% of the
incoming solar energy into usable electricity. Although the theoretical maximum efficiency
13
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
for a single junction cell is approximately 28%, current technologies fall short, resulting in
constrained energy output per surface area.
When compared to conventional diesel generators, photovoltaic systems may struggle to
compete, particularly in scenarios that demand large and consistent power supply. While PV
systems are ideal for small-scale or off-grid applications, they are often less cost-effective
than diesel solutions in larger installations, especially in the absence of subsidies or energy
storage.
Furthermore, the capital investment required for PV system installation remains a significant
barrier. Despite long-term savings on operational costs, the upfront expense associated with
equipment, installation, and infrastructure is still considerably higher than that of traditional
energy systems.
Lastly, for standalone photovoltaic systems that operate independently from the grid, energy
storage becomes indispensable. These systems rely heavily on batteries to ensure a continuous
power supply, particularly during periods without sunlight. However, the high cost of battery
storage components continues to pose a financial challenge for widespread adoption of
autonomous solar solutions.
1.9 Simulation of PV cell
Based on the equations and the model of the photovoltaic system, a simulation of the
photovoltaic module was carried out in MATLAB under standard test conditions, with an
irradiance of 1,000 W/m² and a cell temperature of 25 °C. The table below presents the
specifications of the photovoltaic module used in the simulation.
System parameters
Rated power (Vmp) 200
Voltage at maximum power 26.
(Vmp) 4
Current at maximum power 7.5
(Imp) 8
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 32.
9
Short circuit current (Isc) 8.2
14
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
Total number of cells in Series 54
(Ns)
Total number of cells in parallel 1
(Np)
Tables 1.1: System parameters
Figure 1.9 Model bloc of PV cell
When simulating this photovoltaic panel model under standard test conditions with T = 25°C
and G = 1000 W/m², the following results are obtained
15
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
450
400
350
300
Current (A)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage (V)
Figure 1.10 The I-V (current-voltage) characteristic of the PV panel
104
10
8
Power (W)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage (V)
Figure 1.11 The P-V (power-voltage) characteristic of the PV panel
The I-V characteristic shows that the PV panel is considered as a constant current source for
low voltage values with a current approximately equal to the short-circuit current (ISC). As
the voltage increases, the current begins to decrease exponentially until it reaches zero at the
voltage equal to the open-circuit voltage (VOC). Across the entire voltage range, there is only
one point where the panel operates at the Maximum Power Point (MPP).
1.9.1 The influence of different parameters
[Link] The influence of temperature
16
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
To observe the influence of temperature, the irradiance is fixed at 1000 W/m² while the
temperature is varied across three values: 25°C, 45°C, and 55°C.
450
400
350
300
Current (A)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage (V)
Figure 1.12 the influence of temperature
The increase in voltage as temperature decreases and the slight gain in current as temperature
increases are noticeable. This can be explained by improved light absorption, as the energy
band gap decreases with increasing temperature. The increase in current can be neglected at
the maximum power point and even in the overall behavior of the cell.
[Link] The influence of irradiance
We set the temperature to 25°C while varying the irradiance (1000, 700, and 400 [W/m²]),
then simulated the model and plotted the curve for each value.
450
400
350
300
Current (A)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage (V)
17
CHAPTER I
OVERVIEW OF PV SYSTEMS
Figure 1.13 the influence of irradiance
104
10
8
Power (W)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Voltage (V)
Figure 1.13 Influence of lighting on the PV panel
We can observe that the current is directly proportional to the irradiance at these levels.
However, the voltage does not degrade significantly as the irradiance decreases. The
characteristic of I-V curves shift towards higher values, enabling the module to produce
greater electrical power.
1.10 Conclusion
In this chapter, we explained the principle of the photovoltaic (PV) effect and introduced the
fundamental component of photovoltaic technology: the solar cell. We reviewed the historical
development of PV and presented the different types of PV systems, with a particular focus
on autonomous systems. We also modeled and simulated the PV generator and the boost
converter. Finally, we concluded with a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of
photovoltaic energy. In the next chapter, we will explore the various Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) algorithms used to optimize the performance of photovoltaic systems.
18